Population explosion in Africa: further implications

A serious problem associated with the population explosion in Africa is the widespread degradation of vegetation and soils. Various factors such as climate, animal overgrazing, overcultivation, fires, and soil erosion contribute to the social and economic impact in some areas. An increase of droughts due to lack of precipitation has damaged grasslands. In addition, increased animal population due to animal disease control, increased water supply, and social custom of measuring wealth in terms of herd size cause near wastelands from overgrazing. Also, overcultivation of commercial crops due to an increasing population has accelerated soil erosion by allowing shorter fallow periods, which causes lower crop yields and soil deterioration. Firing woodlands and grasslands to suppress new woody growth is damaging soil as well as encouraging the growth of coarse grasses that have little value for grazing animals. The barren land due to firing causes soil erosion both by water and wind; a total estimated drift of dust from western Africa is 60 million tons/year. These conditions indicate that deterioration will continue resulting in lower carrying capacities and lower productivity from cultivated land.     

LAND DEGRADATION AND ITS MANAGEMENT IN THE ARID AND SEMI ARID AREAS OF CHINA

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黄土高原晋陕蒙毗邻地区土地退化遥感分析

本文利用遥感技术通过典型区的分析,对黄土高原土地退化现状及其成因过程进行了深入研究。结果表明,黄土高原地区由于特殊的自然条件,加以长期人类活动影响,土地退化十分严重,并处于不断发展之中,主要表现为水土流失和土地沙化等。     

金沙江干热河谷区攀枝花市土地退化初探

金沙江河谷区由于河谷深切、焚风效应显著、气候干热、生态环境脆弱,加上人类活动的强烈干扰,使水土流失加剧及土地退化甚至荒漠化的发生和发展。位于金沙江干热河谷的攀枝花市土地退化面积占本市总面积的49.1%,轻度、中度、强度和极强度退化土地面积分别占总土地面积的37.2%、8.2%、3.2%和0.5%。土地退化使土层变薄、肥力下降、土地生产力降低,破坏水利设施、影响水利工程效益,加剧自然灾害。土地退化的防冶对策为:制定正确的土地退化防治政策;严格控制人口增长;加强宣传,提高农民群众的生态意识;保护现有森林,加强植树造林;巩固与加强农田水利基本建设。     

不同土壤侵蚀背景下土地利用的时空演变

为了研究土地利用、土地覆盖的时空变化，本文在遥感技术与GIS技术的支持下，对不同土壤侵蚀背景下土地利用的时间动态特征和空间动态特征进行了定量分析。具体表现为通过空间分析，对中国近五年来不同土壤侵蚀背景下的土地利用类型，如耕地状况、森林植被覆盖、城镇工矿建设用地等时空特征进行了动态分析。研究结果表明：我国土壤侵蚀以水力、风力、冻融侵蚀为主，水力侵蚀以微度水力侵蚀为主，在微度水力侵蚀区，耕地、草地、建设用地面积增加，其中耕地增加最多，林地、未利用地面积逐渐减少。风力侵蚀以剧烈风力侵蚀为主，在微度风力侵蚀区，草地面积减少，而未利用地的面积增加；在轻度、中度、强度风力侵蚀区，耕地、林地、未利用地用地面积增加，草地面积减少。在冻融侵蚀区，草地面积有显著增加，而未利用地面积减小。     

干旱半干旱区草原灌丛化的原因及影响-争议与进展

灌丛化作为全球干旱半干旱区草原普遍发生的现象,其定义为草原生态系统中灌木/木本的生物量、密度、盖度的增加以及草本的生物量、密度、盖度的减少。草原灌丛化是气候变化和人类活动多种因素综合作用的结果。过度放牧被认为是引发草原灌丛化的主要原因之一。最新的研究结果表明过度放牧并不能导致草原灌丛化,但过度放牧后实施休牧却改变了草本与灌木的种间作用,有可能导致灌木的扩张。灌木入侵草原长期以来被认为是草原的退化,结论来源于干旱区土壤沙化的情形,在沙化的灌木林中,土壤碳库被局限于灌木株丛及其周边,使草原的碳截留和储存降低。但最近的全球性集成研究表明草原中灌木覆盖率盖度增加对生态系统可以产生积极作用,灌木可以增加土壤水分的下渗,有利于生态系统的水分储存和和养分的转化(如加强氮的矿化过程)。草原灌丛化对生态系统结构和功能影响存在景观尺度和斑块尺度上的差异。进一步研究适应灌丛化过程的管理机制,综合不断变化的气候条件因素和地域因素,采取合理的草原管理策略,对于全球草原区生产具有极其重要的意义。     

基于土壤粒度分析的草原风蚀特征探讨

对放牧、开垦和围封下内蒙古典型草原地表覆盖状况、土壤粒度与有机碳含量进行测定,分析人类活动对草原风蚀的影响。结果表明,与围封草地相比,过度放牧草地的群落盖度及高度分别降低了44.23%和80.71%,根系生物量下降了37.83%。由于植被覆盖及根系密度的降低,过度放牧草地土壤表现出明显的风蚀特征,表层土壤粗粒化明显,表层土壤平均粒径比围封草地增加了约1倍。而开垦造成的风蚀程度则更为严重,开垦使表层土壤颗粒平均粒径增加2.5倍。因此,过牧与开垦下的典型草原已形成为一个重要的沙尘源。土壤颗粒粗化直接引起土壤有机碳含量的下降,土壤中小于0.1 mm颗粒组分每被吹蚀1%,其有机碳含量将减少0.2546 g·kg-1。     

Desertification in the Arab Region: analysis of current status and trends

The total area of the Arab Region is about 14·2 million km², 90% of it lies within arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas. The area is characterized by harsh environment, fragile ecosystems and limited water resources and arable lands. Throughout its long history these lands were the main source of grain and animal production.By the end of this century and in spite of the national, regional and international efforts to combat desertification and mitigate the effect of drought and desiccation, desertification is still one of the major environmental problems in the Arab Region. The rapid increase in population by some 3% annually, considered among the highest worldwide, along with the changing of consumption patterns and life styles, resulting in increasing food demand, have hastened land degradation in this arid environment.Land degradation in the Arab Region due to misuse is widespread and is proceeding at accelerating rates. Failures of resource management policies are aggravated by overgrazing, overexploitation of water and land resources, overcultivation of marginal lands, deforestation, and the use of inappropriate technologies.This paper attempts to provide:

• A synthesis and analysis of the status of desertification in the Arab Region.

• Identification of the major causes and trends of land degradation.

• Highlighting the limitations and constraints on combating desertification in the Arab Region.

中国北方典型沙漠化地区沙漠化的对比研究

选择了中国北方极端干旱、干旱和半干旱三个地带的沙漠化典型地区, 即, 新疆塔里木河下游阿拉干、内蒙阿拉善盟吉兰泰和河北省丰宁县坝上等地区进行对比研究, 以阐明不同地带沙漠化过程的成因、发展趋势及其防治措施, 并探索建立预测沙漠化发展趋势的数学模式。     

元谋干热河谷区土地荒漠化研究

干热河谷是我国西南地区特殊的生态类型,通过分析云南元谋干热河谷区土地荒漠的面积（海拔１３５０ｍ以下,荒漠化土地面积１００６．０２ｋｍ＾２,占该区总面积的７０．１５％）,表现特征（地形破碎,劣地广布,以肉质常绿灌丛为代表的类似荒漠植被,地表水分条件恶化,土壤贫瘠）及形成原因（自然原因：地质基础稳定性差,地貌类型多样,气候炎热干燥;人为原因：人口激增增加环境压力,垦荒,乱滥伐,过度放牧）,提出了土地荒     

中蒙俄经济走廊蒙古国段的风沙流特征

中蒙俄经济走廊穿越蒙古国主要生态类型区,本文对沿线的达尔汗、乔伊尔、赛因山达、扎门乌德4个观测区的风沙流进行研究,研究结果表明：① 风沙流水平输沙量均随高度增加而降低,两者最优拟合函数随下垫面变化而不同,达尔汗和乔伊尔为指数函数,而赛因山达和扎门乌德为幂函数。② 各观测区年输沙通量空间分异明显,其中乔伊尔最大,达尔汗其次,扎门乌德再次,赛因山达最小,这与传统认知有较大不同。③ 风沙流输沙通量空间差异与多种因素有关。乔伊尔处于海洋气流影响尾闾区,春季干旱发生频率高,正值风季,风速较大,风蚀强烈;其他地区春季干旱发生频率相对较低,其中达尔汗地处自然条件较好的北部河谷区,但由于农田开垦和过度放牧,风蚀较为强烈,而扎门乌德和赛因山达风季风速相对较小,且放牧强度较低,风蚀较轻。本文的研究结论对蒙古国因地制宜开展风沙灾害防治和荒漠化治理具有重要的参考价值。     

Regional soil erosion risk mapping in Lebanon

Soil erosion by water is one of the major causes of land degradation in Lebanon. The problem has not yet been treated in detail although it affects vast areas. This study elaborates a model for mapping soil erosion risk in a representative area of Lebanon at a scale of 1:100,000 using a spatial database and GIS. First, three basic maps were derived: (1) runoff potential obtained from mean annual precipitation, soil-water retention capacity and soil/rock infiltration capacity; (2) landscape sensitivity based on vegetal cover, drainage density and slope; and (3) erodibility of rock and soil. Then two thematic maps were derived: potential sensitivity to erosion obtained from the runoff potential and landscape sensitivity maps, and erosion risk based on the potential erosion and erodibility maps. The risk map corresponds well to field observations on the occurrence of rills and gullies. The model used seems to be applicable to other areas of Lebanon, constituting a tool for soil conservation planning and sustainable management.     

我国南方山区土壤退化及其防治

我国南方山区土壤退化成因主要是土壤及生态系统的脆弱性、人地系统矛盾尖锐、土壤侵蚀的动力作用、盲目开发和工矿建设的影响．应从建设本区稳定平衡的生态系统、调整农业结构、建立持续发展的农业优化模式和政策上采取防治土壤退化的措施．     

中国北方农牧交错带土壤风蚀时空分布

土壤风蚀是干旱、半干旱地区土壤退化的主要过程,定量评价土壤风蚀是分析土壤退化的重要手段。中国北方农牧交错带是土壤风蚀的典型治理区。采用张春来风蚀预报经验模型,以半月为步长,计算中国北方农牧交错带2000-2012年的土壤风蚀模数。结果表明：中国北方农牧交错带的土壤风蚀状况整体有好转;沙地的土壤风蚀最严重,农田次之,草地的土壤风蚀最低;土地利用方式、风速和植被盖度均对土壤风蚀有一定的影响。     

The Faxinal System: Forest fragmentation and soil degradation on the communal grazing land

The Brazilian faxinal is a traditional agrosilvopastoral system, which combines extensive grazing, subsistence cropping and low impact forest extraction, managed within a communal property system. Today it is at serious risk of disappearing due to increasing grazing pressure and logging activities that are leading to environmental problems such as forest fragmentation and soil degradation. The objectives of the study were to: a) evaluate soil physical degradation levels in different grazing areas within the faxinal system; and b) correlate soil degradation, fodder quantity and livestock dynamics in different pasture areas according to the household's location. Landscape mapping, vegetation surveys, and livestock grazing dynamics were assessed. In addition, soil physical parameters were evaluated for each land use (e.g., resistance, bulk density, porosity, moisture, and water infiltration rates). Results showed that livestock grazing and household locations are the main driving forces that lead to forest fragmentation. The household location creates three interrelated gradients in the communal grazing land: 1) soil physical degradation decreases from the pasture areas to araucaria forests; 2) fodder quantity decreases from pastures to araucaria forests; and 3) the livestock grazing intensity decreases from pastures to araucaria forests. In addition, some management practices to mitigate land degradation, including improvement of pastures, installation of removable troughs for drinking water in the upland areas and restriction of livestock from the riparian zone, have been proposed.     

半干旱地区沙漠化发展的内在动因

我国半干旱地区(年降水等雨线250-450mm之间的地带)存在着严重的环境退化问题。这里分布着54.0万km²黄土高原的水土流失区和近16.5万km²以风蚀为主的沙漠化土地。本文分析若干典型区为案例, 从人口和资源的关系入手, 认识半干旱地区近年来引起环境退化的内在动因。当前半干旱地区入口、土地、环境之间不协调状况是十分值得注意的。现有土地对人口支持能力已处于临界限度; 现有的经营水平上, 土地资源难以支持现有的人口, 就成为这里土地退化的主要原因。退化后土地供应力的降低导致对土地压力的再度加大, 引起更大的环境退化, 这就构成沙漠化土地在该区加剧发展的内在动因。消除引起沙漠化的内在动因, 摆脱对环境压力的危机状态, 在目前最根本的出路在于有计划控制人口增长速度, 降低农业人口的比重和提高土地潜在生产力。但是只要认真采取对策, 人口、资源、环境协调发展的前景是可以达到的。     

Evaluation of soil physical properties of long-used cultivated lands as a deriving indicator of soil degradation,north Ethiopia

Soil degradation causes low land productivity. To tackle soil degradation, soil management practices have been implemented in the study area. However, less attention has been given to the management of physical soil quality. Hence, the objective of this study is to evaluate soil physical properties of long-used cultivated lands. Twelve Land Mapping Units (LMUs) were identified by overlaying slope and soil maps. Twelve composite and 12 undisturbed soil samples were collected from the 12 LMUs, and soil physical properties analyzed. Soil bulk density varied from 1.22 g cm^?3 in LMU3 to 1.68 g cm^?3 in LMU4. Available water capacity ranged from 0.09 in LMU4 to 0.17 in LMU3. Stability index (SI) values ranged from a low of 3.58 at LUM10 to 62.5 at LMU3; stability quotient (SQ) values ranged from 79.4 at LMU9 to 2782.8 at LUM3. Highest and lowest soil crust index values were found to be 1.53 in LMU5 and 0.29 in LMU9. This study indicated that poor soil management practice in the study area has caused soil physical degradation. Therefore, this study provides insight into improved land management of long-used cultivated land in the semi-arid region of the study area and other similar environments.     

Changes in intensity of wind erosion at different stages of degradation development in grasslands of Inner Mongolia, China

Overgrazing by increasing numbers of livestock in the Horqin Sandy Land of Inner Mongolia, China, has led to extensive degradation of the region's sandy steppes. Degraded grasslands are generally classified into four main types: fixed (least degradation), semi-fixed (light degradation), semi-shifting (moderate degradation) and shifting (severe degradation) sandy lands, representing four stages of degradation development. An experiment was conducted in the Horqin Sandy Land to investigate changes in intensity of wind erosion at different stages of degradation development in sandy grasslands and determine the extent to which surface wind erosion was affected by surface-related soil and vegetation factors through their effects on surface roughness length and wind regimes. Daily wind erosion rate was monitored at four sites of degraded grassland over an erosive period from 1 April to 10 June in 2001. Soil and vegetation properties for these sites were also measured twice: one in mid-April prior to the establishment of vegetation and again in mid-June after the establishment of vegetation. Relationships between surface roughness length and soil and vegetation variables were examined at each of the two stages of vegetation development. This study shows striking differences in the intensity of surface wind erosion among sites. The daily wind erosion rate in the fixed sandy land was, on average, only about 1/5 of the rate in the semi-fixed sandy land, 1/14 of the rate in the semi-shifting sandy land and 1/47 of the rate in the shifting sandy land suggesting a much higher resistance of the fixed sandy land to wind erosion compared to other sites. Differences in rate of wind erosion between sites were attributed to between-site differences in soil and vegetation properties that exerted significant effects on wind regimes by altering surface roughness length. At the pre-establishment stage of vegetation, surface roughness length was determined by a combination of litter amount on the ground, soil surface hardness and soil moisture content, with litter amount explaining the greatest proportion of the variation. At the post-establishment stage of vegetation, the development of the surface roughness effects was mainly governed by vegetation characteristics (vegetation cover in particular), while the effects of soil surface hardness and soil moisture on surface roughness length are likely to be masked by vegetation effects. The findings suggest that better management practices of restoring vegetation in degraded grasslands are required to reduce soil erosion losses and achieve a sustainable livestock production in the Horqin Sandy Land, an ecologically fragile sandy land ecosystem.     

中国东部亚热带丘陵山区土地退化坡面分带性的成因

中国东部地区流水侵蚀所引起的土地退化具有明显的坡面分带性。以安徽绩溪、浙江兰溪和广东五华为典型区,从坡地地貌及其所引起破面侵蚀分带性入手,通过坡面不同部位地面物质及其理化性质、养分和水分状况以及植被、侵蚀地貌形态的分析,探讨土地退化坡面分带性的成因。     

基于逻辑回归模型的环北京地区土地退化态势分析

以环北京地区为研究区域,从土地利用类型变化和农用地质量下降两个方面分析了环北京地区土地退化状况,并利用逻辑回归模型分析了土地退化与气候、地貌、植被、土壤、人口、土地利用变化、社会经济因子之间关系,探讨土地退化的发展趋势。研究结果表明,风蚀土地是环北京地区土地退化的主要类型,主要分布在监测区内蒙古高原西北部、坝上高原北部及阴山北部地区,从监测区的西北到东南方向,土地退化数量逐渐减少;由牧草地退化而增加沙地是土地利用类型变化造成退化的重要类型,主要集中在浑善达克沙地监测区。基于建立的沙地增加、风蚀土地和水蚀土地逻辑回归模型,年均降雨量和土壤有机质对环北京地区沙地增加的影响最强,沙地增加最可能的区域将主要分布在浑善达克沙地的边缘地带和科尔沁沙地的东部区域;NDVI和土壤有机质对环北京地区风蚀土地影响最强,风蚀土地最可能发生的区域集中在浑善达克沙地南部;NDVI、坡度和土壤湿度对环北京地区水蚀土地影响最强,水蚀土地最可能发生的区域集中在监测区的东南部,并且所预测的最可能发生土地退化的区域与已存在的退化土地区域具有一定的相关性。通过以上分析,最后提出了环北京地区生态环境建设的建议。