MCC and gull flight behavior

Wintertime observations of mesoscale cellular convection (MCC) over the East China Sea have resulted in criteria that have a remarkable similarity to those reported by Woodcock (1975) in the study of thermals and gull flight behavior. It has been determined that the surface wind speed (V) and the air-sea temperature difference (T) prescribe unique and compatible conditons for both the occurrence of MCC and soaring by sea gulls. Specifically, the onset of MCC when V is between 5 and 9 m s^–1 is inversely proportional to T in the range 5 to 7 °C. Elsewhere, the onset of MCC occurs under conditions of direct proportionality between V and T. Necessary conditions for the occurrence of MCC due to heating from below are T 5 °C and V 5 m s^–1. The boundaries of the convective regime for MCC are discussed and interpreted in accordance with the regime for sea-gull soaring and similarity concepts.     

Air–Sea Interaction Features in the Baltic Sea and at a Pacific Trade-Wind Site: An Inter-comparison Study

A systematic comparison of wind profiles and momentum exchange at a trade wind site outside Oahu, Hawaii and corresponding data from the Baltic Sea is presented. The trade wind data are to a very high degree swell dominated, whereas the Baltic Sea data include a more varied assortment of wave conditions, ranging from a pure growing sea to swell. In the trade wind region swell waves travel predominantly in the wind direction, while in the Baltic, significant cross-wind swells are also present. Showing the drag coefficient as a function of the 10-m wind speed demonstrates striking differences for unstable conditions with swell for the wind-speed range 2 m s^?1 < U ₁₀ < 7 m s^?1, where the trade-wind site drag values are significantly larger than the corresponding Baltic Sea values. In striking contrast to this disagreement, other features studied are surprisingly similar between the two sites. Thus, exactly as found previously in Baltic Sea studies during unstable conditions and swell, the wind profile in light winds (3 m s^?1) shows a wind maximum at around 7–8 m above the water, with close to constant wind speed above. Also, for slightly higher wind speeds (4 m s^?1 < U ₁₀ < 7 m s^?1), the similarity between wind profiles is striking, with a strong wind-speed increase below a height of about 7–8 m followed by a layer of virtually constant wind speed above. A consequence of these wind-profile features is that Monin–Obukhov similarity is no longer valid. At the trade-wind site this was observed to be the case even for wind speeds as high as 10 m s^?1. The turbulence kinetic energy budget was evaluated for four cases of 8–16 30- min periods at the trade-wind site, giving results that agree very well with corresponding figures from the Baltic Sea.     

Development and use of the Gill UVW anemometer

A three-component anemometer, developed and refined during the past ten years, measures the three orthogonal wind-speed components directly along the instrument's three axes,X, Y, Z. The basic sensor for each of the three components is a light-weight helicoid propeller driving a tiny precision tachometer generator, which develops a D.C. voltage linearly proportional to the rate of turning of the propeller and reversing in polarity when the direction of rotation reverses. Each propeller turns at a rate almost linearly proportional to the instantaneous wind speed and the cosine of the angle subtended by the wind with the axis of the propeller. Propeller sensors have a starting speed of about 0.2 m s^?1; a distance constant of about 1 m; and may be used in winds up to 30 m s^?1. Over 500 of these instruments are now in use at research stations throughout the world.     

Long-Term Variability of the Wind Field over the Indian Ocean Based on ERA-Interim Reanalysis

A detailed study of long-term variability of winds using 30 years of data from the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts global reanalysis (ERA-Interim) over the Indian Ocean has been carried out by partitioning the Indian Ocean into six zones based on local wind extrema. The trend of mean annual wind speed averaged over each zone shows a significant increase in the equatorial region, the Southern Ocean, and the southern part of the trade winds. This indicates that the Southern Ocean winds and the southeast trade winds are becoming stronger. However, the trend for the Bay of Bengal is negative, which might be caused by a weakening of the monsoon winds and northeast trade winds. Maximum interannual variability occurs in the Arabian Sea due to monsoon activity; a minimum is observed in the subtropical region because of the divergence of winds. Wind speed variations in all zones are weakly correlated with the Dipole Mode Index (DMI). However, the equatorial Indian Ocean, the southern part of the trade winds, and subtropical zones show a relatively strong positive correlation with the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), indicating that the SOI has a zonal influence on wind speed in the Indian Ocean. Monsoon winds have a decreasing trend in the northern Indian Ocean, indicating monsoon weakening, and an increasing trend in the equatorial region because of enhancement of the westerlies. The negative trend observed during the non-monsoon period could be a result of weakening of the northeast trade winds over the past few decades. The mean flux of kinetic energy of wind (FKEW) reaches a minimum of about 100?W?m^?2 in the equatorial region and a maximum of about 1500?W?m^?2 in the Southern Ocean. The seasonal variability of FKEW is large, about 1600?W?m^?2, along the coast of Somalia in the northern Indian Ocean. The maximum monthly variability of the FKEW field averaged over each zone occurs during boreal summer. During the onset and withdrawal of monsoon, FKEW is as low as 50?W?m^?2. The Southern Ocean has a large variation of about 1280?W?m^?2 because of strong westerlies throughout the year.     

Risk assessment of hurricane winds for Eglin air force base in northwestern Florida, USA

Hurricane winds present a significant hazard for coastal infrastructure. An estimate of the local risk of extreme wind speeds is made using a new method that combines historical hurricane records with a deterministic wind field model. The method is applied to Santa Rosa Island located in the northwestern panhandle region of Florida, USA. Firstly, a hurricane track is created for a landfall location on the island that represents the worst-case scenario for Eglin Air Force Base (EAFB). The track is based on averaging the paths of historical hurricanes in the vicinity of the landfall location. Secondly, an extreme-value statistical model is used to estimate 100-year wind speeds at locations along the average track based again on historical hurricanes in the vicinity of the track locations. Thirdly, the 100-year wind speeds together with information about hurricane size and forward speed are used as input to the HAZUS hurricane wind field model to produce a wind swath across EAFB. Results show a 100-year hurricane wind gust on Santa Rosa Island of 58 (±5) m?s^?1 (90% CI). A 100-year wind gust at the same location based on a 105-year simulation of hurricanes is lower at 55?m?s^?1, but within the 90% confidence limits. Based on structural damage functions and building stock data for the region, the 100-year hurricane wind swath results in $574 million total loss to residential and commercial buildings, not including military infrastructure, with 25% of all buildings receiving at least some damage. This methodology may be applied to other coastal areas and adapted to predict extreme winds and their impacts under climate variability and change.     

沙尘天气下输沙率的野外观测与分析

2014年7月—2014年8月借助风速仪、微梯度集沙仪,通过野外监测系统获取的试验数据,对塔中地区2014年7月—2014年8月沙尘天气过程中贴地层输沙率进行分析,得出:0～85 mm高度内,随着风速的增大,35～85 mm无论是绝对的输沙量还是相对的输沙量都减少。0～85 mm高度内,各层输沙率最大值均出现在风速为8 m·s-1左右,波动较为显著;最小值出现在6.5 m·s-1左右,波动不明显;沙尘天气中,输沙率最大值出现在5～15 mm高度,最小值出现在35～85 mm高度。扬沙天气中,风速9.2 m·s-1时,输沙率最大值在0～5 mm处。沙尘暴天气,拐点风速为7.5 m·s-1,7.5 m·s-1时,输沙率增加不显著,7.5 m·s-1时,输沙率增加显著。通过微梯度集沙仪获得的上述试验数据是风沙工程设计的一个极重要工程参数,具有重要的实践意义。     

Persistence of light surface winds in Canada

The persistence of light surface winds (less than or equal to 3 m s^?1 or 7 mi h^?1) is one meteorological factor in air pollution potential. Surface wind data were obtained from 111 Canadian synoptic and aviation weather stations for the period 1957–66. Generally speaking, persistent light winds occur most frequently in British Columbia, the Yukon and northern Alberta. In the ten provinces of Canada, the frequency of occurrence of light winds is a minimum in the spring and a maximum in the winter. In the Yukon and the Northwest Territories it is a minimum in the summer and a maximum in the winter. The seasonal variation is least in the mountain valleys and greatest elsewhere. The spatial and seasonal variations in persistent light winds suggest that, in the mountain valleys, topography is the major factor, while in other regions synoptic weather patterns are relatively important.     

Projected Changes in Surface Air Temperature and Surface Wind in the Gulf of St. Lawrence

Abstract

The impacts of climate change on surface air temperature (SAT) and winds in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (GSL) are investigated by performing simulations from 1970 to 2099 with the Canadian Regional Climate Model (CRCM), driven by a five-member ensemble. Three members are from Canadian Global Climate Model (CGCM3) simulations following scenario A1B from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC); one member is from the Community Climate System Model, version 3 (CCSM3) simulation, also following the A1B scenario; and one member is from the CCSM4 (version 4) simulation following the Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) scenario. Compared with North America Regional Reanalysis (NARR) data, it is shown that CRCM can reproduce the observed SAT spatial patterns; for example, both CRCM simulations and NARR data show a warm SAT tongue along the eastern Gulf; CRCM simulations also capture the dominant northwesterly winds in January and the southwesterly winds in July. In terms of future climate scenarios, the spatial patterns of SAT show plausible seasonal variations. In January, the warming is 3°–3.5°C in the northern Gulf and 2.5°–3°C near Cabot Strait during 2040–2069, whereas the warming is more uniform during 2070–2099, with SAT increases of 4°–5°C. In summer, the warming gradually decreases from the western side of the GSL to the eastern side because of the different heat capacities between land and water. Moreover, the January winds increase by 0.2–0.4?m?s^?1 during 2040–2069, related to weakening stability in the atmospheric planetary boundary layer. However, during 2070–2099, the winds decrease by 0.2–0.4?m?s^?1 over the western Gulf, reflecting the northeastward shift in northwest Atlantic storm tracks. In July, enhanced baroclinicity along the east coast of North America dominates the wind changes, with increases of 0.2–0.4?m?s^?1. On average, the variance for the SAT changes is about 10% of the SAT increase, and the variance for projected wind changes is the same magnitude as the projected changes, suggesting uncertainty in the latter.     

An inverse method for determining wind stress from water-level fluctuations

The hydrodynamic equations governing the water-level response of a lake to wind stress are inverted to determine wind stress from water-level fluctuations. In order to obtain a unique solution, the wind-stress field is represented in terms of a finite number of spatially dependent basis functions with time-dependent coefficients. The discretized version of the inverse equation is solved by a least-squares procedure to obtain the coefficients, and thereby the stress. The method is tested for several ideal cases with Lake Erie topography. Real water-level data is then used to determine hourly values of vector wind stress over Lake Erie for the period 5 May–31 October, 1979. Results are compared with measurements of wind speed and direction from buoys deployed in the lake. Calculated stress direction agrees with observed wind direction for wind speeds > 7.5 m s⁻¹. Under neutral conditions, calculated drag coefficients increase with the wind speed from 1.53 × 10⁻³ for 7.5−10 m s⁻¹ winds to 2.04 × 10⁻³ for 15−17.5 m s⁻¹ winds. Drag coefficients are lower for stable conditions and higher for unstable conditions.     

Characteristics of Spatiotemporal Distribution of Sea Surface Wind along the East Coast of Guangdong Province

We analyzed the frequency distribution characteristics of wind speeds occurring at different offshore sites within a range of 0–200 km based on the sea surface wind data captured via buoys and oil platforms located along the east coast of Guangdong Province. The results of the analysis showed that average wind speed measured for each station reached a maximum in winter while minima occurred in summer, corresponding to obvious seasonal variation, and average wind speed increased with offshore distance. The prevailing wind direction at the nearshore site is the easterly wind, and the frequency of winds within 6–10 m s^–1 is considerable with that of winds at > 10 m s^–1. With the increase of the offshore distance, the winds were less affected by the land, and the prevailing wind direction gradually became northerly winds, predominately those at > 10 m s^–1. For areas of shorter offshore distance (< 100 km), surface wind speeds fundamentally conformed to a two-parameter Weibull distribution, but there was a significant difference between wind speed probability distributions and the Weibull distribution in areas more than 100 km offshore. The mean wind speeds and wind speed standard deviations increased with the offshore distance, indicating that with the increase of the wind speed, the pulsation of the winds increased obviously, resulting in an increase in the ratio of the mean wind speed to the standard deviation of wind speed. When the ratio was large, the skewness became negative. When a relatively great degree of dispersion was noted between the observed skewness and the skewness corresponding to the theoretical Weibull curve, the wind speed probability distribution could not be adequately described by a Weibull distribution. This study provides a basis for the verification of the adaptability of Weibull distribution in different sea areas.     

Inland and Offshore Propagation Speeds of a Sea Breeze from Simulations and Measurements

The inland and offshore propagation speeds of a sea breeze circulation cell are simulated using a three-dimensional hydrostatic model within a terrain-following coordinate system. The model includes a third-order semi-Lagrangian advection scheme, which compares well in a one-dimensional stand-alone test with the more complex Bott and Smolarkiewicz advection schemes. Two turbulence schemes are available: a local scheme by Louis (1979) and a modified non-local scheme based on Zhang and Anthes (1982). Both compare well with higher-order closure schemes using the Wangara data set for Day 33–34 (Clark et al., 1971).Two-dimensional cross-sections derived from airborne sea breeze measurements (Finkele et al. 1995) constitute the basis for comparison with two-dimensional numerical model results. The offshore sea breeze propagation speed is defined as the speed at which the seaward extent of the sea breeze grows offshore. On a study day, the offshore sea breeze propagation speed, from both measurements and model, is -3.4 m s^-1. The measured inland propagation speed of the sea breeze decreased somewhat during the day. The model results show a fairly uniform inland propagation speed of 1.6 m s^-1 which corresponds to the average measured value. The offshore sea breeze propagation speed is about twice the inland propagation speed for this particular case study, from both the model and measurements.The influence of the offshore geostrophic wind on the sea breeze evolution, offshore extent and inland penetration are investigated. For moderate offshore geostrophic winds (-5.0 m s^-1), the offshore and inland propagation speeds are non-uniform. The offshore extent in moderate geostrophic wind conditions is similar to the offshore extent in light wind conditions (-2.5 m s^-1). The inland extent is greater in light offshore geostrophic winds than in moderate ones. This suggests that the offshore extent of the sea breeze is less sensitive to the offshore geostrophic wind than its inland extent. However, these results hold only if it is possible to define an inland propagation speed. For stronger offshore geostrophic winds (-7.5 m s^-1), the sea breeze is completely offshore and the inland propagation speed is ill-defined.     

Comparison of a simple logarithmic and equivalent neutral wind approaches for converting buoy-measured wind speed to the standard height: special emphasis to North Indian Ocean

The difference between the transferred wind speed to 10-m height based on the equivalent neutral wind approach (U _n) and the logarithmic approach (U _log) is studied using in situ observations from the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans, with special emphasis given to the North Indian Ocean. The study included U _n ? U _log variations with pressure, relative humidity, wind speed, air temperature, and sea surface temperature (SST). U _n ? U _log variation with respect to air temperature (T _a) reveals that U _n ? U _log is out of phase with air temperature. Further analysis found that U _n ? U _log is in phase with SST (T _s) ? T _a and varies between ?1.0 and 1.0 m/s over the North Indian Ocean, while for the rest of the Oceans, it is between ?0.3 and 0.8 m/s. This higher magnitude of U _n ? U _log over the North Indian Ocean is due to the higher range of T _s ? T _a (?4 to 6 °C) in the North Indian Ocean. Associated physical processes suggested that the roughness length and friction velocity dependence on the air–sea temperature difference contributes to the U _n ? U _log difference. The study is further extended to evaluate the behavior of U _n ? U _log under cyclonic conditions (winds between 15 and 30 m/s), and it was found that the magnitude of U_n ? U _log varies 0.5–1.5 m/s under the cyclonic wind conditions. The increasing difference with the wind speed is due to the increase in the momentum transfer coefficient with wind speed, which modifies the friction velocity significantly, resulting in U _n higher than U _log. Thus, under higher wind conditions, U _n ? U _log can contribute up to half the retrieval error (5 % of the wind speed magnitude) to the satellite validation exercise.     

Comparison of three methods for determining strong wind stress over Lake Flevo

The drag coefficient C _d (10 m) at the center of shallow Lake Flevo (20-km diam) is evaluated for wind speeds u between 5 and 15 m s^?1 independently by three methods. Trivane measurements of eddy-correlation fluxes agree with eddy flux data available for moderate wind speeds from other sites, and can together be represented by C _d(10 m) = 0.0007 μ^0.3. Additional evaluations of water-surface slope give C _d(10 m) ≈ 0.0024, indicating that the stress at the water-surface level may not be entirely accounted for by eddy-correlation measurements well above the waves. Neither the eddy-correlation stress, nor the water-surface stress appears to be accurately estimable from profile measurements of wind, temperature and humidity analyzed without regard to sea state, if u > 10 m s^?1.     

Mesoscale simulations of multi-decadal variability in the wind resource over Korea

This study investigated multi-decadal variability in the wind resource over the Republic of Korea using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) mesoscale meteorological model. Mesoscale simulations were performed for the period from November 1981 to November 2010. The typical wind climatology over the Korean Peninsula, which is influenced by both continental and oceanic features, was represented by the physics-based mesoscale simulations. Winter had windier conditions with northwesterly flows, whereas less windy with southwesterly flows appeared in summer. The annual mean wind speeds over the Republic of Korea were approximately 2 m s^?1 with strong wind in mountainous areas, coastal areas, and islands. The multi-decadal variability in wind speed during the study period was characterized by significant increases (positive trend) over many parts of the study area, even though the various local trends appeared depending on the station locations. The longterm trend in the spatially averaged wind speed was approximately 0.002 m s^?1 yr^?1. The annual frequency of daily mean wind speeds over 5 m s^?1 at the turbine hub height also increased during the study period throughout the Republic of Korea. The present study demonstrates that multi-decadal mesoscale simulations can be useful for climatological assessment of wind energy potential.     

Observations of the convective plume of a lake under cold-air advective conditions

Moderating effects of Lake Apopka, Florida on downwind surface temperatures were evaluated under cold-air advective conditions. Point temperature measurements north and south of the lake and data obtained from a thermal scanner flown at 1.6 km indicate that surface temperatures directly downwind may be higher than surrounding surface temperatures by as much as 5 °C under conditions of moderate winds (~4 m s^–1). No substantial temperature effects were observed with surface wind speed less than 1 m s^–1. Fluxes of sensible and latent heat from Lake Apopka were calculated from measurements of lake temperature, net radiation, relative humidity and air temperature above the lake. Bulk transfer coefficients and the Bowen ratio were calculated and found to be in agreement with reported data for non-advective conditions.IFAS Journal Series No. 1006.     

A Study on Height Reassignment for the AMV Products of the FY-2C Satellite

A method for using height reassignment to improve the quality of satellite-derived atmospheric motion vectors (AMVs) is presented. The rationale underlying height reassignment is explored, and the technical details are studied by applying three height reassignment schemes that use NCEP reanalysis winds. The quality of the AMVs is generally improved following reassignment, although the magnitude of the improvement differs according to the scheme applied. Scheme 3 provides the best quality and stability, followed by Scheme 1 and Scheme 2. The negative biases in the zonal components of the AMVs decrease from [-5,-4] m s-1to <-1 m s-1following reassignment. The meridional components also improve. The AMVs derived from the infrared and water vapor channels improve by 58.7% and 25%, respectively. The feasibility of using Scheme 3 in the operational derivation of AMVs is studied by incorporating the forecast wind field predicted by a T511 medium-range numerical weather prediction (NWP) system. Incorporating the 120-h forecast reduces the negative biases in zonal winds and positive biases in meridional winds retrieved from the water vapor channel, improving the overall quality of the AMVs by 26.7%. Extending the validity period of the forecast field linearly reduces the improvement in retrieved AMVs, but the magnitude of this reduction is small. Incorporating the 120-h forecast field still results in a 13% improvement, although it may eliminate a larger number of AMVs of good quality.     

Intercomparison of Oceansat-2 and ASCAT Winds with In Situ Buoy Observations and Short-Term Numerical Forecasts

Sea surface winds from the Oceansat-2 scatterometer (OSCAT) are important inputs to Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models. The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) recently updated the OSCAT retrieval algorithm in order to generate better products. An attempt has been made in this study to evaluate the updated OSCAT winds using buoy observations and the 6-hour short-term forecasts from the T574L64 model from the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) during the 2011 monsoon. The results of the OSCAT evaluation are also compared with those from the Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT) on-board the Meteorological Operational Satellite-A (MetOp-A) which were evaluated in the same way. The root mean square differences (RMSDs) for wind speed and direction, are within 2?m?s^?1 and 20° for both scatterometers. The RMSDs for OSCAT are slightly higher than those for ASCAT, and this difference may be attributed in part to the difference in frequency and resolution of the scatterometer payloads. The bias and standard deviation for ASCAT winds are also lower than those for OSCAT winds with respect to the model short-range forecast, and this can be attributed to the regular assimilation of ASCAT winds in the model.     

Generation mechanisms of convectively induced internal gravity waves in a three-dimensional framework

The generation mechanisms of convective gravity waves in the stratosphere are investigated in a three-dimensional framework by conducting numerical simulations of four ideal storms under different environmental conditions: one un-sheared and three constant low-level sheared basic-state winds with the depth of the shear layer of 6 km and the surface wind speeds (U_s) of 8, 18, and 28 m s^?1, using the Advanced Regional Prediction System (ARPS) model. The storms simulated under the un-sheared (U_s = 0 m s^?1), weakly sheared (U_s = 8 and 18ms^?1), and strongly sheared (U_s = 28ms^?1) basicstate winds are classified into single-cell, multicell, and supercell storms, respectively. For each storm, the wave perturbations in a control simulation, including nonlinearity and microphysical processes, are compared with those in quasi-linear dry simulations forced by diabatic forcing and nonlinear forcing that are obtained from the control simulation. The gravity waves generated by the two forcing terms in the quasi-linear dry simulations are out of phase with each other for all of the storms. The gravity waves in the control simulation are represented by a linear sum of the wave perturbations generated by the nonlinear forcing and diabatic forcing. This result is consistent with the results of previous studies in a two-dimensional framework. This implies that both forcing mechanisms are important for generating the convective gravity waves in the three-dimensional framework as well. The characteristics of the three-dimensional gravity waves in the stratosphere were determined by the spectral combination of the forcing terms and the wave-filtering and resonance factor that is determined from the basic-state wind and stability as well as the vertical structure of the forcing.     

Tide,Wind, and River Forcing of the Surface Currents in the Fraser River Plume

A long-term record of surface currents from a high-frequency radar system, along with near-surface hydrographic transects, moored current meter records, and satellite imagery, are analyzed to determine the relative importance of river discharge, wind, and tides in driving the surface flow in the Fraser River plume. The observations show a great deal of oceanographic and instrumental variability. However, averaged quantities yielded robust results. The effect of river flow, which determines buoyancy and inertia near the river mouth, was found by taking a long-term average. The resulting flow field was dominated by a jet with two asymmetric gyres; the anticyclonic gyre to the north had flow speeds consistent with geostrophy. The mean flow speed near the river mouth was 14.3?cm?s^–1, while the flow further afield was 5?cm?s^–1 or less. Wind stress and surface currents were highly coherent in the subtidal frequency band. Northwesterly winds drive a surface flow to the southeast at speeds of nearly 30?cm?s^–1. Southeasterly winds drive a surface flow to the northwest at speeds reaching 20?cm?s^–1; however, there is more spatial variability in speed and direction relative to the northwesterly wind case. A harmonic analysis was used to extract the tidally driven flows. Ellipse parameters for the major tidal constituents varied considerably in both alignment and aspect ratio over the radar domain, in direct contrast to a barotropic model which predicted rectilinear flow along the Strait of Georgia. This is a result of water filling and draining the shallow mud flats north of the Fraser's main channel. The M₂ velocities at the surface were also weaker than their barotropic counterparts. However, the shallow water constituent MK₃ was enhanced at the surface and nearly as strong as the mean flow, implying that non-linear interactions are important to surface dynamics.     

The Signature of Sea Spray in the Hexos Turbulent Heat Flux Data

The role of sea spray intransferring heat and moisture across the air-sea interface has remained elusive. Some studies have reported that sea spray does not affect the turbulent air-sea heat fluxes for 10-m wind speeds up to at least 25 m s^-1, while others have reported important spray contributions for wind speeds as low as 12 m s^-1. One goal of the HEXOS (Humidity Exchange over the Sea) program was to quantify spray's contribution to the turbulent air-sea heat fluxes, but original analyses of the HEXOS flux data found the spray signal to be too small to be reliably identified amid the scatter in the data. We look at the HEXOS data again in the context of the TOGA-COARE bulk flux algorithm and a sophisticated microphysical spray model. This combination of quality data andstate-of-the-art modelling reveals a distinct spray signature in virtually all HEXOS turbulent heat flux data collected in winds of 15 m s^-1 and higher. Spray effects are most evident in the latent heat flux data, where spray contributes roughly 10% of the total turbulent flux in winds of 10 m s^-1 and between 10 and 40% in winds of 15–18 m s^-1. The spray contribution to the total sensible heat flux is also at least 10% in winds above 15 m s^-1. These results lead to a new, unified parameterization for the turbulent air-sea heat fluxes that should be especially useful in high winds because it acknowledges both the interfacial and spray routes by which the sea exchanges heat and moisture with the atmosphere.