Natural resources as national fantasies

The development of agriculture is recognised to be an essential preliminary and on-going element in the economic development strategies of most developing countries. The contribution of agricultural production to gross domestic product, food self-sufficiency and export income are amongst the major development goals exercising the governments of such countries. In addition, in many countries the agricultural sector is regarded as one with a potential for generating a surplus to sustain other economic activities and to have an important stabilising role in reducing the movement of population from rural areas. This article discusses renewable natural resources, soil and water, as the basis for agricultural development and especially of irrigated farming. A number of case studies will be referred to which illustrate the idea that many national governments attribute quite unreal qualities to soil and water resources. Once development schemes were launched appropriate rhetoric was mobilised to invest the reclamation of ‘virgin lands’ and ‘new lands’, with the character of ‘green revolutions’. These ventures have been sustained not because of their success but because the ‘fantasies’ have been circulated amongst ill-formed urban populations, remote from the arduous realities of land reclamation. Case studies in the Soviet Union and the Middle East are discussed.     

International economic institutions: Formal mechanisms for dealing with resource conflict

States employ international economic institutions as formal mechanisms in resource related conflict management. It is little known that states incorporate water resource management treaties in regional trade agreements (REIs) to jointly manage (1) the multifaceted use of rivers and (2) the territorial implications of rivers as borders. Both can lead to political tensions. I evaluate institutional effectiveness, through REI institutional design, in militarized interstate conflict. The role of trade institutions in geo-politics is a broad theme addressed. African dyads, REIs and conflict from 1950 to 1996 are the focus. I test the liberal hypothesis that institutions diminish the likelihood of militarized interstate conflict. Findings suggest allies that share memberships in REI water treaties with provisions for territorial boundary issues are more likely to fight than are other states. This relationship is weak, however, lending support to realist claims.     

Environmental diplomacy in South Asia: Considering the environmental security,conflict and development nexus

Environmental security concerns have broadened the national security agenda and discourse of international relations. Yet environmental insecurity issues have endured impacts on livelihood, human security, social equity, human rights, internal security, political stability, economic growth and development of the state. Environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity and energy security are shaping development and consumption patterns, which are possible causes of inter-state conflict in South Asia. This paper is an attempt to evaluate the nexus of climate change, energy and water security with conflict and development. Furthermore, we argue for the need for environmental diplomacy in Pakistan within the South Asian context. The argument is that integration of development with environmental factors and peacemaking has potential to achieve sustainable development in South Asia.     

The creation of governments-in-waiting: The Arab Uprisings and legitimacy in the international system

During the Arab Uprisings from 2010 a series of new interim governments were formed in which processes of international brokerage played a significant role. Some governments were formed only once the old political order had been displaced, but others were established during, and partly as a means to achieve, that displacement amidst continuing armed conflict. It is this second type of case that will be examined in this paper, where the move by major powers to shift recognition to new administrations forms part of the process of delegitimising a national political system that still, at least in part, exists. This paper will look at the multi-site formation of these “governments-in-waiting”, as they seek to bridge the gap between the diaspora and the resident, between the long established parties of exile and the local military commanders. The process of formation also acts as a channel through which external authorities seek – not always successfully – to act as dispensers of legitimation, and thus arbiters of rightful inclusion within structures of government. It will explore how the act of legitimation translates into changing modes of governance in areas that came under the control of the new authorities, their role in facilitating and managing processes of civil and military defection, and, in the some cases, the consequences of prior formation for the establishment of full governments once the ancien régime has finally been overthrown.     

Ecological regionalization in Canada and the United States

Present interest in environmental problems which are international, interstate or interprovincial in scope is drawing attention to the necessity for ecological regionalizations that will serve as a basis for intraregional transfer of experience. The major efforts at ecological regionalization by the national governmental agencies are described and compared. Although similar concepts have evolved in both countries, different systems of units have been developed for defining and mapping ecosystems at the regional scale. Before any regionalization is used it should be thoroughly tested, and modified if necessary.     

Rice research: Food for 4 billion people

Rice is the staple food for about 2.4 billion people and provides more than 20% of their daily calorie intake. This number will increase to 4.6 billion people by 2050. Just to meet the projected demand for rice in the 21st Century, the world's annual rough rice production must increase from 520 million tons today to at least 880 million tons by 2025, an increase of almost 70%. That requirement may rise to one billion tons by the year 2050.To produce such an increase, on decreasing arable land, with reduced water resources, with less rural labor input, and with fewer agrochemical inputs, will require major contributions from research to increase yields and reduce inputs, costs and losses. And, more important, it will require coordinated national and international scientific efforts and, above all, strong political will, determined governments and major investments in food research in the rice-consuming countries of the world.     

The political geography of Australian Federal-State relations

It is difficult, if not impossible, to completely separate political from economic relationships in any political system at any scale; this is no less true for Australia than it is for other countries. Changes in Australian Federal-State political relationships must be viewed in the context of changes in the overall system of international trade, the increasing economic power of the Pacific States and the economic restructuring of the Australian economy. However, explanations of political relationships cannot merely focus on the economic issues; the legal, historical and geographical contexts are also relevant. This paper explores Federal-State relations within the overall framework of a centre-periphery model within which jurisdictional conflicts revolve around Federal Government attempts to maintain power at the centre at the expense of the periphery. It takes the viewpoint that any meaningful discussion of political relationships must encompass aspects of human conflict which take place in particular political-geographical and legal contexts.     

纵向岭谷区生态系统变化及西南跨境生态安全研究

位于我国西南、以纵向山系和大河为主体特征的纵向岭谷区,其地表主要自然物质、能量输送和人类活动等,表现出明显的“通道—阻隔”作用,产生了复杂多样的关联效应：使其成为亚洲大陆主要的纵向生物走廊、避难所和我国与东南亚重要的生态廊道,拥有北半球除沙漠和海洋外的各类生态系统,是全球生物物种的高富集区和世界级基因库,但其生态脆弱、灾害频发;主导了区内多民族沿河谷分布、在山间盆地聚居的“大分散、小聚居”格局,其社会经济发展地域分异大。因此,该区一直是地学和生物学等研究地表复杂环境系统与生命系统演变规律的关键地区,在全球具有不可替代性;同时,该区资源富集,短期开发行为多、环境退化加剧、贫困普遍,保护与发展矛盾极为突出,在西部具有典型性和代表性。     

国际地质编图现状及发展趋势

随着经济社会的发展和科学技术的进步,以及地质工作服务领域的空前扩展,地质图件作为地质工作成果的集中体现和地质工作服务于经济社会发展的主要工具,受到各国政府及国际地质组织的高度重视,并出现一些明显的特点和发展趋势,主要表现为:由专业性地质图件向更多实用性图件发展;由单一地质类图件向多学科系列图件发展;由地区性、国家级图件向洲际性及全球性图件扩展;由地表地质图件向反映深部地壳结构构造图件发展;并在图面结构、表现形式上进行了诸多改革,提供了更多地质信息。     

Comprehensive assessment of water security for inland watersheds in the Hexi Corridor,Northwest China

Water security is related closely to ecological, environmental, economic, social, and political problems, and may possibly even affect national security. The problem is especially important in arid inland watersheds. In this paper, we assess the water resources security of three watersheds in the Hexi Corridor (Northwest China) using a multi-level, multi-target, analytical hierarchy process approach. We constructed an assessment system based on the current situation and future development of the region’s water resources in the context of the society, economy, and environment of these inland watersheds. The assessment used 21 indicators that describe the ratio of water supply to demand, the ecological environment, food security, drinking-water security, disaster control capacity, water resources management, and economic conditions. The level of the water resources security was highest in the Shulehe watershed, followed by the Heihe watershed and the Shiyanghe watershed. Strategies to promote water security for all three watersheds are discussed.     

The TRANSMED Atlas： geological-geophysical fabric of the Mediterranean region——Final report of the project

Geological research on the Mediterranean region is presently characterized by the transition from disciplinary to multidisciplinary research, as well as from national to international investigations. In order to synthesize and integrate the vast disciplinary and national datasets which are available, it is necessary to implement maximum interaction among geoscientists of different backgrounds. The creation of project-oriented task forces in universities and other research institutions, as well as the development of large international cooperation programs, is instrumental in pursuing such a multidisciplinary and supranational approach. The TRANSMED Atlas, an official publication of the 32nd International Geological Congress (Florence 2004), is the result of an international scientific cooperation program which brought together for over two years sixtythree structural geologists, geophysicists, marine geologists, petrologists, sedimentologists, stratigraphers, paleogeographers, and petroleum geologists coming from eighteen countries, and working for the petroleum industry, academia, and other institutions, both public and private. The TRANSMED Atlas provides an updated, synthetic, and coherent portrayal of the overall geological-geophysical structure of the Mediterranean domain and the surrounding areas. The initial stimulus for the Atlas came from the realization of the extremely heterogeneous nature of the existing geological-geophysical data about such domain. These data have been gathered by universities, oil companies, geological surveys and other institutions in several countries, often using different procedures and standards. In addition, much of these data are written in languages and published in outlets that are not readily accessible to the general international reader. By synthesizing and integrating a wealth of preexisting and new data derived from surficial geology, seismic sections at various scales, and mantle tomographies, the TRANSMED Atlas provides for the first time a coherent geological overview of the Mediterranean region and represents an ideal springboard for future studies.     

中亚各国在咸海流域水资源问题上的冲突与合作

咸海流域是中亚社会发展进程中水资源供需矛盾和生态环境问题表现最为突出的区域,已严重妨碍了经济发展和社会稳定,甚至严重影响到中亚国家间的关系. 在解决咸海问题上,中亚各国虽然都表现出了极度忧虑和希望合作解决共同问题的诚意,签订了一系列的多边和双边合作协议,付诸了较多的行动;发达国家和国际组织也多方介入,大力援助、积极斡旋,但仍未从根本上缓解咸海危机. 深入分析介绍了咸海流域的水资源及开发利用情况、中亚各国在咸海流域水资源问题上的冲突以及开展的一系列合作,探讨了咸海危机的潜在水冲突,提出了合理利用水资源,实现流域一体化管理,化解咸海危机的对策措施.     

Ecological conflicts in Poland

Transformation of the political system, observed in Poland for 10 years in connection with economic restructuring and basic socio-economic reforms to harmonise with European Union structures, is also evident in terms of environmental management. Pollution has been reduced in many ways but the rise in living standards, linked with the rapid growth of cars and other forms of consumption, has had a negative effect and environmental conditions have deteriorated in the central areas of large cities. The growth of waste water and refuse is a considerable problem. More areas are now officially protected and the three levels of local government established at the beginning of January 1999 (voivodeship, district and community) all have certain defined environmental protection responsibilities which are cumulatively greater than before. Meanwhile there is a greater awareness in society of environmental issues, although it does not yet lead to a high level of participation in protection work. However, there are strongly-expressed opinions on the ecological acceptability of certain economic developments and conflicts are frequently arising within communities and local governments and also between investors on the one side and ecological organisations and environmental protection institutions on the other. Most controversial are new roads, power stations (like the Zarnowiec nuclear project) and reservoirs like the one on the Dunajec river at Czorsztyn. Local communities frequently resist plans for waste dumps, incinerating plants and other developments which are seen as injurious to health or the quality of life. The planned reprivatisation of the state-owned forests is also criticised by foresters and ecological movements. Conflicts are likely to grow as economic development accelerates but better information and greater public understanding of the need for sustainability should make for consensus. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Comparative analysis of the international carbon verification policies and systems

Carbon verification, which can guarantee the reliability and credibility of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission data, is the most important part of the daily operations of the carbon emission right trading system. Many international institutions, countries and regions have conducted research on and have practiced carbon verification policies and systems. Through comparative analysis of the international carbon verification policies and systems, they can provide experience for Chinese unified national carbon market to start supporting carbon verification. The paper study concludes that (1) carbon verification systems developed by international institutions focus on the scientific level of verification methods; (2) carbon verification policies and systems issued by important countries and regions draw on International Standardization Organization (ISO)14064 standards based on their national conditions and focus on the scientific level and reasonableness of verification methods; (3) major international experience includes complete verification policies and systems, strict standard verification procedures, diversified verification forms and a focus on key emission sources. Based on the differences in China’s carbon emissions characteristics caused by unbalanced regional economic development and the conditions of carbon verification in seven pilot carbon trading areas, this thesis proposes the following suggestions: pushing forward the establishment of carbon verification policies and systems by accelerating legislation on climate changes; facilitating carbon verification in a coordinated manner; regulating key GHG emission sources; establishing and improving supervision on carbon verification; and intensifying international exchanges and cooperation.

     

Groundwater status and associated issues in the Mekong-Lancang River Basin: International collaborations to achieve sustainable groundwater resources

Groundwater is an important and readily available source of fresh water in the Mekong-Lancang River Basin. With a rapid population growth and increasing human activities, an increasing number of countries in the Mekong-Lancang River Basin are experiencing depleted and degraded groundwater supplies. In transboundary river basins, such as the Mekong-Lancang River, prioritizing the use of the shared aquifer by one riparian government may affect the opportunities of other riparian governments and lead to potential water conflicts between neighboring countries. To promote the sharing of strategies and information for the sustainable and equitable use of water resources of the shared basin, international collaborative workshops on groundwater resources have been organized for all Mekong-Lancang River countries. These workshops provide an opportunity to communicate and discuss nationally sensitive issues on groundwater by the associated countries, with topics covering multiple aspects of groundwater, such as the groundwater status in the basin, quality issues, water use conflicts, hydrological information gaps, management policies and capacity building for successful water resource management. Consensus has been reached by all countries on the importance of catchment-based groundwater management and the need for close communication among the countries. Strategies for managing transboundary aquifer issues must foster international collaboration based on the regional network, influence national networks and enhance the capacity to building maps and monitoring systems based on associated databases. The sustainability of water resources cannot be achieved without the integrated involvement and contributions by multiple countries and various stakeholders. Therefore, collaborative workshops provide a great opportunity to further our understanding of the hydrologic processes of the Mekong River Basin, share the benefits of the aquifer and provide a strategy and vision for sustainable water resource management in the Mekong-Lancang River countries.     

Environmental policy as a factor in a new security policy

Environmental policy is increasingly becoming an indispensable part of modern policy to maintain peace and security. After the end of the East-West conflict, a new cold war between North and South is looming on the horizon. It is caused by a steadily widening gap between the poverty of the South and the wealth of the North, which has been gained not least at the expense of the environment worldwide, and thus also of the South.There is a need for a parallel development between the disarmament process in the classical sense and a disarmament process in a material sense to promote an economic, social and ecological development which is consistent in itself and coordinated with regard to its effects.Appropriate instruments to achieve this, besides international conventions, include the opening up of markets, ecologically honest prices, technical cooperation and not least the enforcement of environmentally compatible and resource-saving forms of industry and ways of life in the industrialised countries.     

Geo-historical Trajectories of Democratic Transition: The Case of Nigeria

There has been a long-term, halting diffusion of the liberal democratic state. The literature on democratization, however, tends to underplay issues of geo-historical context. This paper addresses the relationship between geo-historical context and democratization through a case study of Nigeria. Key contextual factors of transition discussed include: international pressure for democratization, geo-political dynamics of pro-democracy coalitions, and local and trans-local political economic relationships. Nigeria under the military governments of Babangida and Abacha (1985–1998) was in a perpetual half-hearted state of transition to democracy. The country's status as a major oil exporter allowed it relative immunity from international pressure for democratization. Beyond repression and neo-patrimonialism, both governments deployed a distinctly spatial resistance strategy, that of state creation. The generals tried to shift attention away from regime failures and excesses, notably the illegitimacy of military rule and economic decline. Mobilization for state creation served to divide opposition to military government because it focused attention at the local scale, as new state movements competed for access to centrally controlled resources and political recognition of their ethno-regional group(s). This transition period produced several legacies for Nigeria's Fourth Republic (1999-). These include: a dysfunctional national state apparatus; problems of national disunity; and a stagnant economy. These legacies of transition present major obstacles to national development and the consolidation of a liberal democratic state. The Nigerian case points to a broader need for an understanding of geo-historical context in assessing prospects for the spread of democracy. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

陆地生态系统碳汇在实现“双碳”目标中的作用和建议

2030年前实现碳达峰、2060年前实现碳中和(简称“双碳”)是我国对国际社会的庄严承诺,已被纳入生态文明建设的总体布局。生态系统碳汇是实现“双碳”目标的重要手段,也是林业和草原实现高质量发展的必然要求。国际有关机构对全球森林、草地和湿地生态系统的碳储量和碳循环进行了评估。自1990年以来,附件一国家(指《联合国气候变化框架公约》附件一列出的经济合作发展组织中所有发达国家和经济转型国家)对本国的碳排放和碳汇进行估算,编制了年度温室气体清单; 我国也编制了5次国家温室气体清单。这些工作对我国开展应对气候变化的研究提供了基础。提出了如下建议: 在编制“双碳” 路线图和时间表时,既要考虑我国生态系统碳汇与能源和工业领域碳排放在区域空间分布和时间维度上的差异性,也要考虑生态系统同时所具有的碳汇和碳排放的特殊性; 生态系统碳汇是碳达峰的非选项,是碳中和的必选项; 生态系统碳汇要遵循国家实现“双碳”目标的基本原则,要将生态系统碳汇作为国家生态建设和保护工程的主要目标,提高碳汇计量和监测能力,完善市场和融资机制。     

Changes and patterns of origin regions of international tourism

The dramatic political and economic changes in Europe, Asia, and the Middle East during the early 1990s have had a dramatic impact on international tourism. Between 1974 and 1990 there have been significant shifts in international tourist originations. The purpose of this paper is to describe and analyze the changing patterns and to compare the two time periods. A key component of the study is the construction of a Population-Adjusted Travel Index which assesses the capability of a country to generate tourists relative to population characteristics. Findings indicate that Europe is still the leader in trips generated, even though the proportion from this region is declining over time. Asian countries exhibited the most marked improvement due primarily to the tremendous economic expansion taking place on the Pacific Rim. In contrast countries of the Middle East have declined in importance relative to international tourism. This is due to political and economic instability in the region.     

调整的生态足迹方法在辽宁省的应用研究

应用调整的生态足迹方法,对辽宁省1996—2003年的生态足迹进行了计算与分析,从纵向比较并分析了辽宁省近年来在发展过程中所受到的环境压力.结果表明:辽宁省1996—2003年生态超载指数都大于2,有的年份甚至接近于3,这说明辽宁省当前的生物资源的生产和能源的消费的能力远超过其生态承载能力,即生态资源处于高强度利用状态,生态环境有潜在恶化的趋势.辽宁省1996—2003年生态效率稳步上升,从1996年的2 569元·hm^-2上升到2003年的4 101元·hm^-2,提高了0.6倍,年平均增长率为7.5%.但与其它工业化国家相比还有很大的差距,这说明辽宁省在提高生态效率方面还有更大的潜力.