Paying homage to the ‘Heavenly Mother’: Cultural-geopolitics of the Mazu pilgrimage and its implications on rapprochement between China and Taiwan

Much has been researched on tourism across (former) borders of conflict and on pilgrimage as a socio-cultural activity, but the relationship between the two remains poorly understood. Pilgrimage-tours carried out by Taiwanese devotees to the birthplace of Mazu (or Tianshang Shengmu – the Heavenly Mother) in Putian, China offer a significant platform to further our understanding of how religion can play a part in the rapprochement between China and Taiwan. Based on ethnographic fieldwork, this paper goes beyond the conventional state-level analysis to discuss interactions and encounters forged at the levels of the temple organisations and the individual. It utilises Victor Turner’s concept of ‘communitas’ to understand how spiritual spaces are being performed through the pilgrimage rather than already existing before the pilgrimage. Importantly, the Mazu pilgrimage-tour is conceptualised not as a tourism product, but as both a social activity and a socialising one, producing opportunities for different forms of interactions between the Chinese and Taiwanese devotees. These ‘interactions along the side’ as opposed to state-level diplomatic exchanges offer insights into the ‘more-than-state’ and ‘more-than-human’ relationships that bind/divide devotees on both sides of the Taiwan Strait.     

Phytolith analysis from the archaeological site of Kush, Ras al-Khaimah, United Arab Emirates

Despite the wealth of archaeological sites and excellent conditions for preservation, few phytolith investigations have been undertaken from the Arabian Gulf region. The results from the Sasanian and Islamic archaeological tell of Kush, Ras al-Khaimah, United Arab Emirates, are presented. Kush is situated just inside the Gulf on an important trade route. The occupation sequence dates from the 4^th century A.D. until the 13^th century A.D., recording the development of the site in the Sasanian period, followed by the arrival of Islam in the 7^th century A.D. and the final abandonment of the site in the late 13^th century when the nearby site of al-Mataf (Julfar) began to develop closer to the present day coastline. All the samples analyzed contained abundant phytoliths (short cells, elongated cells, and groups of elongated cells) of various types. They included date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), papillae (possibly from barley (Hordeum)), and hair cells possibly from species of canary grass (Phalaris spp.). Some researchers have suggested that groups of elongated cells may indicate the presence of irrigation in semiarid environments. The present results for this class of phytoliths appeared to imply that intensive irrigation was unlikely to have taken place around Kush.     

Surface ruptures induced by the devastating 1068 AD earthquake in the southern Arava valley, Dead Sea Rift, Israel

The Elat fault (a segment of the Dead Sea Transform) runs along the southern Arava valley (part of the Dead Sea Rift, Israel) forming a complex fault zone that displays a time-dependent seismic behaviour. Paleoseismic evidence shows that this fault zone has generated at least 15 earthquakes of magnitude larger than M 6 during the late Pleistocene and the Holocene. However, at present the Elat fault is one of the quietest segments of the Dead Sea Transform, lacking even microsesimicity. The last event detected in the southern Arava valley occurred in the Avrona playa and was strong enough to have deformed the playa and to change it from a closed basin with internal drainage into an open basin draining to the south.Paleoseismological, geophysical and archaeological evidences indicate that this event was the historical devastating earthquake, which occurred in 1068 AD in the eastern Mediterranean region. According to the present study this event was strong enough to rupture the surface, reactivate at least two fault branches of the Elat fault and vertically displace the surface and an early Islamic irrigation system by at least 1 m. In addition, the playa area was uplifted between 2.5 and 3 m along the eastern part of the Elat fault shear zone. Such values are compatible with an earthquake magnitude ranging between M 6.6 and 7. Since the average recurrence interval of strong earthquakes during the Holocene along the Elat fault is about 1.2 ± 0.3 ky and the last earthquake occurred more about 1000 years ago, the possibility of a very strong earthquake in this area in the future should be seriously considered in assessing seismic hazards.     

Transport in a 2-D saturated porous medium: A new method for particle tracking

A new method for solving the transport equation based on the management of a large numbe of particles in a discretized 2-D domain is presented. The method uses numerical variables to represent the number of particles in a given mesh and is more complex than the 1-D problem. The first part of the paper focuses on the specific management of particles in a 2-D problem. The method also would be valid for three dimensions as long as the medium can be modeled similar to a layered system. As the particles are no longer tracked individually, the algorithm is fast and does not depend on the number of particles present. The numerical tests show that the method is nearly numerical dispersion free and permits accurate calculations even for simulations of low-concentration transport. Because each mesh is considered as a closed system between two successive time steps, it is easy to add adsorption phenomenon without any problem of numerical stability. The model is tested under conditions that are extremely demanding for its operating mode and gives a good fit to analytical solutions. The conditions in which it can be used to best advantage are discussed.     

Superposed folding in the Honakere arm of the Chitradurga-Karighatta schist belt in the Dharwar tectonic province,southern India,and its bearing on the Sargur-Dharwar relation

The supracrustal enclave within the Peninsular Gneiss in the Honakere arm of the Chitradurga-Karighatta belt comprises tremolite-chlorite schists within which occur two bands of quartzite coalescing east of Jakkanahalli(12°39′N; 76°41′E), with an amphibolite band in the core. Very tight to isoclinal mesoscopic folds on compositional bands cut across in the hinge zones by an axial planar schistosity, and the nearly orthogonal relation between compositional bands and this schistosity at the termination of the tremolite-chlorite schist band near Javanahalli, points to the presence of a hinge of a large-scale, isoclinal early fold (F₁). That the map pattern, with an NNE-plunging upright antiform and a complementary synform of macroscopic scale, traces folds 'er generation (F ₂),is proved by the varying attitude of both compositional bands (S₀) and axial pranar schistosity (S ₁), which are effectively parallel in a major part of the area. A crenulation cleavage (S ₂) has developed parallel to the axial planes of theF ₂ folds at places. TheF ₂ folds range usually from open to rarely isoclinal style, with theF ₁ andF ₂ axes nearly parallel. Evidence of type 3 fold interference is also provided by the map pattern of a quartzite band in the Borikoppalu area to the north, coupled with younging directions from current bedding andS ₀ -S ₁ inter-relation. Although statistically theF ₁ andF ₂ linear structures have the same orientation, detailed studies of outcrops and hand specimens indicate that the two may make as high an angle as 90°. Usually, in these instances, theF ₁ lineations are unreliable around theF ₂ axes, implying that theF ₂ folding was by flexural slip. In zones with very tight to almost isoclinalF ₂ folding, however, buckling attendant with flattening has caused a spread of theF ₁ lineations almost in a plane. Initial divergence in orientation of theF ₁ lineations due to extreme flattening duringF ₁ folding has also resulted in a variation in the angle between theF ₁ andF ₂lineations in some instances. Upright later folding (F₃) with nearly E-W strike of axial planes has led to warps on schistosity, plunge reversals of theF ₁ andF ₂ axes, and increase in the angle between theF ₁ andF ₂ lineations at some places. Large-scale mapping in the Borikoppalu sector, where the supposed Sargur rocks with ENE ‘trend’ abut against the N-‘trending’ rocks of the Dharwar Supergroup, shows a continuity of rock formations and structures across the hinge of a large-scaleF ₂ fold. This observation renders the notion, that there is an angular unconformity here between the rocks of the Sargur Group and the Dharwar Supergroup, untenable.     

Pilgrimage tourism in the Holy Land: The behavioural characteristics of Christian pilgrims

The purpose of this paper is to describe, characterise and analyse the behavioural characteristics of Christian pilgrims to holy sites in the Holy Land at the present time. The method of research used in this study was based on one hundred questionnaires, which the pilgrims themselves were asked to complete. The conclusion is that a scale exists upon which the tourist-behavioural features characterising present-day Christian pilgrims can be rated. This scale covers their world-view which ranks the importance of holy sites and the pilgrims' lack of interest in tourism per se. It was found that behavioural factors are related to the pilgrims' perception of holy sites in general and those in Israel in particular. The scale can be described as secularism versus sacredness and tourism versus pilgrimage. The typology is important because it allows us to classify and create other typologies and also to analyse the subject for practical purposes. Additionally, the survey highlights the increasing convergence of old-fashioned pilgrimage and tourism, which have much in common.     

Models of breakage and selection for particle size distributions

It is generally agreed that particle size distributions of sediments tend ideally to approximate the form of the lognormal probability law, but there is no single widely accepted explanation of how sedimentary processes generate the form of this law. Conceptually, and in its simplest form, sediment genesis involves the transformation of a parent rock mass into a particulate end product by processes that include size reduction and selection during weathering, transportation, and deposition. The many variables that operate simultaneously during this transformation can be shown to produce a distribution of particle sizes that approaches asymptotically the lognormal form when the effect of the variables is multiplicative. This was first shown by Kolmogorov (1941). Currently available models combine breakage and selection in differing degrees, but are similar in treating the processes as having multiplicative effects on particle sizes. The present paper, based on careful specification of the initial state, the nth breakage rule and the nth selection rule, leads to two stochastic models for particle breakage, and for both models the probability distributions of particle sizes are obtained. No attempt is made to apply these models to real world sedimentary processes, although this topic is touched upon in the closing remarks.     

Calcareous nannofossils from late Jurassic sediments of the Volga Basin (Russian Platform): evidence for productivity-controlled black shale deposition

The Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary interval in the northern hemisphere is characterized by the widespread occurrence of black shales. About 60% of all petroleum source rocks comprise sediments of late Jurassic and early Cretaceous age with the origin of such black shales still under discussion. In order to better understand the factors that controlled black shale sedimentation, 78 samples were analyzed for calcareous nannofossils from two sections (Gorodische, Kashpir) of the Volga Basin (NE Russia). Calcareous nannofossils are ideal proxies for deciphering nutrient, temperature and salinity fluctuations. Additionally 58 samples from both sections were also analyzed for clay mineralogy, ¹³C_org , TOC and CaCO₃ composition. Both sections contain calcareous claystones and intercalated organic rich shales overlain by phosphorite beds. The presence of the calcareous nannofossil species Stephanolithion atmetros throughout both successions allows a biostratigraphic assignment to the S. atmetros Nannofossil Biozone (NJ 17), which corresponds to the Dorsoplanites panderi Ammonite Biozone of the Middle Volgian. The marlstones of the Kashpir section yield a well-preserved rich and diverse nannoflora, whereas all black shale beds are essentially barren of calcareous nannofossils. Only the uppermost black shale layers yield an impoverished assemblage of low diversity and abundance. Geochemical data suggest an early diagenetic nannofossil dissolution in the black shales of the Kashpir section. This is supported by the occurrence of coccoliths in black shale horizons of the Gorodische section. The assemblages in both sections are dominated by coccoliths of the Watznaueriaceae group (Watznaueria barnesae, Watznaueria fossacincta, Watznaueria britannica, Watznaueria communis), Biscutum constans and Zeugrhabdotus erectus. In Kashpir rare specimens of Crucibiscutum salebrosum occur in the higher part of the section. These taxa indicate boreal affinities. B. constans and Z. erectus are considered to be taxa indicative of a higher productive environment, while C. salebrosum is a cool-water species. From base to top of the Kashpir section, consecutive mass occurrences of different taxa/groups were observed: W. barnesae–W. fossacincta acme, W. britannica–W. communis acme, Z. erectus acme, B. constans acme (including sparse occurrences of C. salebrosum).The observed distribution patterns have been interpreted as characterizing a transition from a low productive, oligotrophic setting with high abundances of K-selected cosmopolitan species (Watznaueriaceae) and predominating marlstone sedimentation to a higher productive, mesotrophic setting. Cooler water temperatures marked by r-selection and acmes of opportunistic species (Z. erectus, B. constans) are coincident with the deposition of black shales and phosphorites in the higher part of the section. Interpretation of clay mineral distribution indicates that black shale deposition occurred under semi-arid hinterland climatic conditions concomitant with a sea level rise. This induced dysoxic conditions in the deeper parts of the Volga Basin, favoring the preservation of organic matter. The cause of the nutrient enrichment in the surface water is still unclear, but possible river water input from the continents does not seem to have been the controlling factor under a semi-arid climate. The occurrence of phosphorites in the upper part of both sections presumably indicates that enhanced productivity may be better explained by the upwelling of nutrient-rich bottom water and thereby causing the recycling of nutrients from oxidized phytoplankton back into the photic zone. This recycling effect finally may have led to an intensified phytoplankton growth which seemed to be a sufficient source for the enrichment of organic matter. This is well correlated with the increase in black shale horizons in the upper part of the Kashpir section.     

Pan-African plates: Additional evidence from igneous events in Saudi Arabia

The chemical and geological nature of thec. 600 m.y. igneous complex of the Al-Hadah escarpment of Saudi Arabia is fitting to that of a modern subduction environment. It appears that plate motions were occurring during this Pan-African tectonic event but the scale of both plates and motions was smaller than that of the present time.     

Spread of oil from theTenyo Maru,off the Southwest coast of Vancouver Island

We provide background oceanography and observations and hindcast simulations of spreading oil leaked from the wreck of theTenyo Maru, a fishing vessel that sank off the western entrance to Juan de Fuca Strait in July 1991. The vessel sank in the region of the Tully Eddy on the continental shelf. Although this eddy is normally present in summer, its location shifts and its trapping time varies considerably. The spread of theTenyo Maru oil is represented reasonably well by assuming the eddy to be a littler further to the east and north of its position as observed during drifter studies in 1986. Observations in 1985 showed that the preferred exit route of surface water from the eddy was toward the southeast, the direction followed by theTenyo Maru oil in 1991; however, other drift paths are possible, and under different weather conditions the oil could have drifted toward the Vancouver Island coast.     

Numerical evaluation of multicomponent cation exchange reactive transport in physically and geochemically heterogeneous porous media

Experimental evidence and stochastic studies strongly show that the transport of reactive solutes in porous media is significantly influenced by heterogeneities in hydraulic conductivity, porosity, and sorption parameters. In this paper, we present Monte Carlo numerical simulations of multicomponent reactive transport involving competitive cation exchange reactions in a two-dimensional vertical physically and geochemically heterogeneous medium. Log hydraulic conductivity, log K, and log cation exchange capacity (log CEC) are assumed to be random Gaussian functions with spherical semivariograms. Random realizations of log K and log CEC are used as input data for the numerical simulation of multicomponent reactive transport with CORE^2D, a general purpose reactive transport code. Longitudinal features of the fronts of reactive and conservative species are computed from the temporal and spatial moments of depth-averaged concentrations. Monte Carlo simulations show that: (1) the displacement of reactive fronts increases with increasing variance of log K, while it decreases with the variance of log CEC; (2) second-order spatial moments increase with increasing variances of log K and log CEC; (3) uncertainties in the mean arrival time are largest (smallest) for negatively (positively) correlated log K and Log CEC; (4) cations undergoing competitive cation exchange exhibit different apparent velocities and retardation factors due to both physical and geochemical heterogeneities; and (5) the correlation between log K and log CEC affects significantly apparent cation retardation factors in heterogeneous aquifers.     

Revision of the conchostracan genus Estherites from the Upper Cretaceous Nenjiang Formation of the Songliao Basin and its biogeographic significance in China

The diagnosis of Estherites corrugatus from the basal part of the Coniacian Second Member of the Nenjiang Formation in Nenjiang County, north-east China is revised following the application of a new preparation technique to some of the carapaces and an examination of specimens under a scanning electron microscope, both of which revealed morphological features on the carapace that had not been recognized previously. Restudy of the type species of the two subgenera Estherites (Euestherites) and Estherites (Parestherites) also revealed details of carapace features not seen hitherto. These indicate that they should be separated from Estherites. As a result, Euestherites is upgraded to genus level and Parestherites is placed in synonymy. The importance of Estherites and Euestherites is considered in the context of Late Cretaceous assemblages of these crustaceans and the three conchostracan provinces (South-West, South-East and North China) that are recognized to have been present in China during the Turonian–Santonian period.     

The oldest fossil faunas of South Australia

A critical review of earlier references to Precambrian fossils in South Australia shows that Radiolaria could be present but that other animal remains listed or described by earlier authors have been wrongly interpreted. There is no evidence for the presence of Arthropods in this material.The fauna described bySprigg from the early Cambrian sandstone and quartzite of Ediacara consists not only of Medusae. Recent studies have shown that it includes specimens resembling the types ofPteridinium andRangea from the Nama Series of Southwest Africa. They are now considered as related to living Pennatulacea. In addition, there are present the annelidSpriggina, possibly Siphonophora, and at least two entirely new forms of invertebrates.This assemblage is followed by a sequence of undoubted Lower Cambrian faunas from the lowest Archaeocyatha horizon up to theProtolenus-Zone. The Ediacara fauna which consists only of soft-bodied animals is entirely unlike any known Cambrian fauna. This fact supports the view that it is Precambrian.     

Structural pattern in the Precambrian rocks of Sonua-Lotapahar region,North Singhbhum,eastern India

In the western part of the North Singhbhum fold belt near Lotapahar and Sonua the remobilized basement block of Chakradharpur Gneiss is overlain by a metasedimentary assemblage consisting of quartz arenite, conglomerate, slate-phyllite, greywacke with volcanogenic material, volcaniclastic rocks and chert. The rock assemblage suggests an association of volcanism, turbidite deposition and debris flow in the basin. The grade of metamorphism is very low, the common metamorphic minerals being muscovite, chlorite, biotite and stilpnomelane. Three phases of deformation have affected the rocks. The principal D1 structure is a penetrative planar fabric, parallel to or at low angle to bedding. No D1 major fold is observed and the regional importance of this deformation is uncertain. The D2 deformation has given rise to a number of northerly plunging major folds on E-W axial planes. These have nearly reclined geometry and theL ₂lineation is mostly downdip on theS ₂surface, though some variation in pitch is observed. The morphology of D2 planar fabric varies from slaty cleavage/schistosity to crenulation cleavage and solution cleavage. D3 deformation is weak and has given rise to puckers and broad warps on schistosity and bedding. The D2 major folds south of Lotapahar are second order folds in the core of the Ongarbira syncline whose easterly closure is exposed east of the mapped area. Photogeological study suggests that the easterly and westerly closing folds together form a large synclinal sheath fold. There is a continuity of structures from north to south and no mylonite belt is present, though there is attenuation and disruption along the fold limbs. Therefore, the Singhbhum shear zone cannot be extended westwards in the present area. There is no evidence that in this area a discontinuity surface separates two orogenic belts of Archaean and Proterozoic age.     

A type curve approach to estimatingp for ap-normal transformation

The p-normal transformation plays an important role in reservoir characterization for data sets that are neither normally nor log-normally distributed. The key step in the transformation is to estimate the value of pfor a given data set. Even though there are several ways to determine p,these are more inconvenient than the quicker and easier type curve approach to estimate pwe present in this paper. In addition, the method provides the p-normal transformation with a visual interpretation. We demonstrate the technique by analyzing reservoir permeability and porosity data from the East Velma West Block Sims Sand Unit, Oklahoma.     

The behaviour of an elastic non-homogeneous half-space. Part I-line and point loads

In the first part of this paper solutions are developed for the response of a non-homogeneous half-space subjected to either a surface point load or a surface line load. The non-homogeneity considered is a variation in Young's modulus (E) with depth (z) which takes the form E=m_EZ^α where m_E is a constant and α is referred to as the non-homogeneity parameter. The variation of these solutions as the non-homogeneity parameter α varies between the limits of zero (homogeneous soil) to unity (Gibson soil) gives some fresh insight into both these limiting cases.     

Survival of F-RNA coliphages and three bacterial indicators during wastewater chlorination and transport in estuarine waters

Three bacterial water quality indicators,Clostridium perfringens, enterococci, and fecal coliforms, were compared to F-RNA coliphages for their survival during chlorination at several municipal wastewater treatment plants in Rhode Island and seasonally during transport in a section of the Narragansett Bay estuary. F-RNA coliphages were used as the best available indicator for the survival of Noroviruses (formerly Norwalk-like virus), the most frequently identified agent for the most prevalent waterborne disease (an acute but benign gastroenteritis), which has yet to be propagated in tissue culture and for which there is no lower animal model. Inactivation of the enterococci and fecal coliforms during wastewater chlorination was much greater than that of the F-RNA coliphages whose inactivation was essentially the same as that of C.perfringens. Survival of the F-RNA coliphages andC. perfringens during winter transport down Narragansett Bay were comparable to each other and greater than that for the enterococci or fecal coliforms. During the summer,C. perfringens survived longer than the other three indicators, possibly because the virus-like (F-RNA coliphages) and the two vegetative bacterial indicators were more susceptible than theC. perfringens spores to the lethal effects of sunlight and elevated water temperatures during the summer. Based on these findings, F-RNA coliphages seems to be a reliable indicator of viral contamination and die-off in estuarine waters.     

The Geomorphological Context of Medieval Juslibol Castle in the Middle Reaches of the River Ebro,Spain

An interdisciplinary non‐invasive research strategy combining the analysis of archival documents, detailed geomorphological mapping, Quaternary stratigraphic studies, analysis of ceramics, and radiocarbon dating was designed to reconstruct the evolution of the Mezimegeer–Juslibol Castle, northeastern Spain. This fortress had great strategic importance in the siege and conquest of the nearby Islamic city of Saraqusta by the Christians in A.D. 1118. The castle and moat complex was built in the mid‐10th century. In the mid‐12th century, its rapid degradation began, as it is shown by this geoarchaeological study of the sediments in the moats. Its present state of decay is due to later erosion that is promoted by the unstable bedrock of Miocene gypsum, highly deformed gravels that form a Pleistocene fluvial terrace, and the environmental aridity.     

Adjusting stream-sediment geochemical maps in the Austrian Bohemian Massif by analysis of variance

The Austrian portion of the Bohemian Massif is a Precambrian terrane composed mostly of highly metamorphosed rocks intruded by a series of granitoids that are petrographically similar. Rocks are exposed poorly and the subtle variations in rock type are difficult to map in the field. A detailed geochemical survey of stream sediments in this region has been conducted and included as part of the Geochemischer Atlas der Republik Österreich,and the variations in stream sediment composition may help refine the geological interpretation. In an earlier study, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was applied to the stream-sediment data in order to minimize unwanted sampling variation and emphasize relationships between stream sediments and rock types in sample catchment areas. The estimated coefficients were used successfully to correct for the sampling effects throughout most of the region, but also introduced an overcorrection in some areas that seems to result from consistent but subtle differences in composition of specific rock types. By expanding the model to include an additional factor reflecting the presence of a major tectonic unit, the Rohrbach block, the overcorrection is removed. This iterative process simultaneously refines both the geochemical map by removing extraneous variation and the geological map by suggesting a more detailed classification of rock types.     

Place-making and environmental change in a Hindu pilgrimage site in India

Many Hindu pilgrimage sites in India experience heavy influxes of pilgrims and are subject to considerable environmental impact. Existing literature on the study of the environment in pilgrimage sites, however, appears to follow two divergent directions: one emphasizes degradation of the physical environment while the other highlights the sacred character of the place and how that is compromised by contemporary visitor flows. The aim of this paper is to move beyond this divergence and to demonstrate how contemporary environmental problems are outcomes related to a historical process of environmental change that accompanies the making of a sacred place. This paper is based on a case study of Vrindavan, a Hindu pilgrimage site associated with Krishna worship in northern India. More than 6 million visitors visit Vrindavan annually. Using a historical geography approach and socio-spatial dialectic conceptual framework, the paper explains how this pilgrimage landscape was established in the 15th century, and how since then it has evolved into a religious-urban place comprising more than 5500 temples. Its development is categorized into three periods: pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial. In each period, the socio-spatial fabric showed significant transformations that resulted from the interaction of three critical factors: the influence of local and global socio-economic processes on the cultural economy of pilgrimage, the relationship of this economy to spatial change, and institutional controls that regulated the other two factors. It is argued that the environment of pilgrimage is simultaneously social, economic, cultural and religious and shaped by the need to maintain the place as sacred. This insight is useful for a better understanding of contemporary environmental problems so that they may be addressed effectively.