Hydrogen emissions from Erebus volcano, Antarctica

The continuous measurement of molecular hydrogen (H₂) emissions from passively degassing volcanoes has recently been made possible using a new generation of low-cost electrochemical sensors. We have used such sensors to measure H₂, along with SO₂, H₂O and CO₂, in the gas and aerosol plume emitted from the phonolite lava lake at Erebus volcano, Antarctica. The measurements were made at the crater rim between December 2010 and January 2011. Combined with measurements of the long-term SO₂ emission rate for Erebus, they indicate a characteristic H₂ flux of 0.03?kg s^–1 (2.8?Mg? day^–1). The observed H₂ content in the plume is consistent with previous estimates of redox conditions in the lava lake inferred from mineral compositions and the observed CO₂/CO ratio in the gas plume (～0.9 log units below the quartz–fayalite–magnetite buffer). These measurements suggest that H₂ does not combust at the surface of the lake, and that H₂ is kinetically inert in the gas/aerosol plume, retaining the signature of the high-temperature chemical equilibrium reached in the lava lake. We also observe a cyclical variation in the H₂/SO₂ ratio with a period of ～10?min. These cycles correspond to oscillatory patterns of surface motion of the lava lake that have been interpreted as signs of a pulsatory magma supply at the top of the magmatic conduit.     

Diffuse volcanic degassing and thermal energy release from Hengill volcanic system, Iceland

We report the first detailed study of spatial variations on the diffuse emission of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) from Hengill volcanic system, Iceland. Soil CO₂ and H₂S efflux measurements were performed at 752 sampling sites and ranged from nondetectable to 17,666 and 722?g?m^?2?day^?1, respectively. The soil temperature was measured at each sampling site and used to evaluate the heat flow. The chemical composition of soil gases sampled at selected sampling sites during this study shows they result from a mixing process between deep volcanic/hydrothermal component and air. Most of the diffuse CO₂ degassing is observed close to areas where active thermal manifestations occur, northeast flank of the Hengill central volcano close to the Nesjavellir power plant, suggesting a diffuse degassing structure with a SSW?CNNE trend, overlapping main fissure zone and indicating a structural control of the degassing process. On the other hand, H₂S efflux values are in general very low or negligible along the study area, except those observed at the northeast flank of the Hengill central volcano, where anomalously high CO₂ efflux and soil temperatures were also measured. The total diffuse CO₂ emission estimated for this volcanic system was about 1,526?±?160?t?day^?1 of which 453?t?day^?1 (29.7?%) are of volcanic/hydrothermal origin. To calculate the steam discharge associated with the volcanic/hydrothermal CO₂ output, we used the average H₂O/CO₂ mass ratio from 12 fumarole samples equal to 88.6 (range, 9.4?C240.2) as a representative value of the H₂O/CO₂ mass ratios for Hengill fumarole steam. The resulting estimate of the steam flow associated with the gas flux is equal to 40,154?t?day^?1. The condensation of this steam results in thermal energy release for Helgill volcanic system of 1.07?×?10¹⁴?J?day^?1 or to a total heat flow of 1,237?MW_t.     

Mechanism of energy transfer in the lava lake of Niragongo (Zaire), 1959–1977

Heat and mass transfer rates were studied at the Niragongo lava lake during two expeditions directed by H. Tazieff in 1959 and 1972. The results of this study are as follows:Heat is transferred to the surface of the lake by the movement of lava; gas discharge is a result and not the cause of convection. The chemical composition of the gases and magma has changed very little between 1959 and 1972, whereas the mass and energy outputs differ by an order of magnitude. In 1977 a catastrophic explosion seems to have been caused by tectonic factors, stopping the slow convection of magma under the volcano and hence reducing surface manifestations in the form of the lava lake and escaping fumarolic and magmatic gases. The gas discharge was, in tons day⁻¹, 5000 for H₂O, 11,000 for CO₂, 1000 for SO₂ in 1959, and in 1972 7700 for H₂O, 180,000 for CO₂ and 23,000 for SO₂. These values correspond to an energy transfer of 0.9 × 10⁹ W in 1959 and 16 × 10⁹ W in 1972.     

A magmatic source for fumaroles and diffuse degassing from the summit crater of Teide Volcano (Tenerife, Canary Islands): a geochemical evidence for the 2004–2005 seismic–volcanic crisis

The present work reports the results of 15 studies of diffuse CO₂ degassing performed at Teide Volcano crater (Canary Island, Spain) and the chemical and isotopic compositions of fluids discharged from a fumarolic field located at the top of the volcano as measured between 1991 and 2010. A higher contribution of magmatic gases accompanied by enhanced total diffuse CO₂ emissions were observed in relation with a seismic crisis that occurred in Tenerife Island between 2001 and 2005, with the main peak of seismic activity between April and June 2004. A significant pulse in total diffuse CO₂ emission was observed at the crater of Teide (up to 26.3?t day^?1) in 2001. In December 2003, the chemical composition of the Teide fumarole changed significantly, including the appearance of SO₂, an increase in the HCl and CO concentrations and in the C₂H₆/C₂H₄ and C₃H₈/C₃H₆ ratios, and a decrease in the H₂S, CH₄, and C₆H₆ concentrations and in the gas/steam ratio. A few months after a drastic decrease in seismic activity, the SO₂, HCl, and CO concentrations and the C₂H₆/C₂H₄ and C₃H₈/C₃H₆ ratios strongly decreased, whereas the CH₄ and C₆H₆ concentrations and the gas/steam ratios increased. According to the trends shown by both the geochemical parameters and the seismic signals late in the observation period, the risk of a rejuvenation of volcanic activity at Teide is considered to be low. The associated temporal changes in seismic activity and magmatic degassing indicate that geophysical and fluid geochemistry signals in this system are related. Future monitoring programs aimed at mitigating volcanic hazard on Tenerife Island should involve coupled geophysical and geochemical studies.     

Diffuse CO2 efflux from Iwojima volcano,Izu-Ogasawara arc,Japan

Iwojima volcano, located on the southernmost part of the Izu-Ogasawara arc, is characterized by the extrusion of trachyte or trachy andesite lavas and pyroclastic rocks of Holocene and surface thermal manifestations. Small phreatic explosions have been recorded frequently during the last 100 years with the most recent in 1999 and 2001. In order to elucidate the behavior of volcanic volatiles and to assess the potential activity of this volcano, diffuse CO₂ efflux, CO₂ content and δ¹³C–CO₂ in soil gas, and soil temperature at 30 cm depth were measured at 272 sites in March 2000, 112 sites in December 2000 and 40 sites in December 2001. We found that high CO₂ efflux values, of more than 100 g m⁻² day⁻¹, occurred at several locations on Motoyama volcano corresponding with high soil temperatures (more than 60 °C at 30 cm depth) region and with areas where CO₂ with magmatic δ¹³C was observed. Here, the magmatic δ¹³C determined for fumarolic CO₂ data ranged from −2‰ to +3‰, which is clearly higher than magmatic gas values (−8‰ to −2‰) typically found in island arc settings around the world. However, this can be explained in terms of carbon-isotope fractionation between calcite and CO₂ under subsurface temperature and pressure conditions at Iwojima. A total efflux of CO₂ for Iwojima volcano is estimated to be 760 t day⁻¹, with a magmatic contribution of about 450 t day⁻¹. This value is rather high compared with other volcanoes in island arc settings. Since Iwojima has no visible plume, almost all volcanic CO₂ is released as diffuse efflux through the volcanic edifice.     

UV camera measurements of fumarole field degassing (La Fossa crater,Vulcano Island)

The UV camera is becoming an important new tool in the armory of volcano geochemists to derive high time resolution SO₂ flux measurements. Furthermore, the high camera spatial resolution is particularly useful for exploring multiple-source SO₂ gas emissions, for instance the composite fumarolic systems topping most quiescent volcanoes. Here, we report on the first SO₂ flux measurements from individual fumaroles of the fumarolic field of La Fossa crater (Vulcano Island, Aeolian Island), which we performed using a UV camera in two field campaigns: in November 12, 2009 and February 4, 2010. We derived ~ 0.5 Hz SO₂ flux time-series finding fluxes from individual fumaroles, ranging from 2 to 8.7 t d^?1, with a total emission from the entire system of ~ 20 t d^?1 and ~ 13 t d^?1, in November 2009 and February 2010 respectively. These data were augmented with molar H₂S/SO₂, CO₂/SO₂ and H₂O/SO₂ ratios, measured using a portable MultiGAS analyzer, for the individual fumaroles. Using the SO₂ flux data in tandem with the molar ratios, we calculated the flux of volcanic species from individual fumaroles, and the crater as a whole: CO₂ (684 t d^?1 and 293 t d^?1), H₂S (8 t d^?1 and 7.5 t d^?1) and H₂O (580 t d^?1 and 225 t d^?1).     

Imaging DOAS for volcanological applications

The simultaneous quantitative determination of two-dimensional bromine monoxide (BrO) and sulphur dioxide (SO₂) distributions in volcanic gas plumes is described. Measurements at the fumarolic field on the island Vulcano (autumn 2004) and in the plume of Mt. Etna volcano (spring 2005) were carried out with an Imaging DOAS instrument. The SO₂ fluxes of several fumaroles were estimated from two-dimensional distributions of SO₂. Additionally, the first two-dimensional distributions of BrO within a volcanic plume were successfully retrieved. Slant column densities of up to 2.6 × 10¹⁴ molecules per square centimetre were detected in the plume of Mt. Etna. The investigation of the BrO/SO₂ ratio, calculated from the two-dimensional distributions of SO₂ and BrO, shows an increase from the centre to the edge of the volcanic plume. These results have significance for the involvement of ozone during BrO formation processes in volcanic emissions.     

A reassessment of current volcanic emissions from the Central American arc with specific examples from Nicaragua

The Central American volcanic arc supplies a significant proportion of the persistent annual global sulphur dioxide emissions from volcanoes. In November/December 2003, we completed a survey of the arc section from Mombacho to San Cristóbal in Nicaragua recording individual mean fluxes of 800, 530 and 220 Mg day^− 1 in the plumes from San Cristóbal, Telica and Masaya, respectively. An assessment of fluxes published since 1997 along the entire Central America arc yields a mean total arc flux of SO₂ of 4360 Mg day^− 1 or 8–16% of the annual estimated global volcanic SO₂ flux to the troposphere. New field data shows that Masaya volcano continues to show stable HCl/SO₂ and HF/SO₂ ratios, suggesting a sustained flux of these components of ∼ 220 and 30 Mg day^− 1, respectively (1997 to 2004). Masaya's plume composition also appears to have been stable, between 2001 and 2003, with respect to all the particulate species measured, with significant fluxes of SO₄²⁻ (4 Mg day^− 1), Na⁺ (0.9–1.3 Mg day^− 1) and K⁺ (0.7 Mg day^− 1). Extrapolating the Masaya plume species ratios to the entire Central American arc gives mean HCl and HF fluxes of 1300 and 170 Mg day^− 1 and a particulate sulphate flux of 40 Mg day^− 1 for 1997 to 2004, although without further understanding of the degassing processes and sources at depth of these different volatiles, these arc-scale estimates should be treated with caution. Combining our arc scale mean SO₂ flux with published measurements of volcanic gas compositions with respect to CO₂ and H₂O allows us to estimate mean CO₂ fluxes of 4400–9600 Mg day^− 1 and H₂O fluxes of 70,000–78,000 Mg day^− 1 for the arc. Preliminary comparisons of these estimates of outgassing rates with published volatile input fluxes into the Central American subduction zone, suggest that Cl is more efficiently recycled through the subduction zone than CO₂. The results for H₂O are inconclusive.     

Greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, CH4, and N2O) from several perialpine and alpine hydropower reservoirs by diffusion and loss in turbines

We investigated greenhouse gas emissions (CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O) from reservoirs located across an altitude gradient in Switzerland. These are the first results of greenhouse gas emissions from reservoirs at high elevations in the Alps. Depth profiles were taken in 11 reservoirs located at different altitudes between the years 2003 and 2006. Diffusive trace gas emissions were calculated using surface gas concentrations, wind speeds and transfer velocities. Additionally, methane entering with the inflowing water and methane loss at the turbine was assessed for a subset of the reservoirs. All reservoirs were emitters of carbon dioxide and methane with an average of 970?±?340?mg?m^?2?day^?1 (results only from four lowland and one subalpine reservoir) and 0.20?±?0.15?mg?m^?2?day^?1, respectively. One reservoir (Lake Wohlen) emitted methane at a much higher rate (1.8?±?0.9?mg?m^?2?day^?1) than the other investigated reservoirs. There was no significant difference in methane emissions across the altitude gradient, but average dissolved methane concentrations decreased with increasing elevation. Only lowland reservoirs were sources for N₂O (72?±?22???g?m^?2?day^?1), while the subalpine and alpine reservoirs were in equilibrium with atmospheric concentrations. These results indicate reservoirs from subalpine/alpine regions to be only minor contributors of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere compared to other reservoirs.     

HCl emissions at Soufrière Hills Volcano,Montserrat, West Indies,during a second phase of dome building: November 1999 to October 2000

HCl:SO₂ mass ratios measured by open path Fourier transform spectroscopy (OP-FTIR) in the volcanic plume at Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat, are presented for the second phase of dome building between November 1999 and November 2000. HCl:SO₂ mass ratios of greater than 1 and HCl emission rates of greater than 400 t day^–1 characterise periods of dome building for this volcano. The data suggest that chlorine partitions into a fluid phase as the magma decompresses and exsolves water during ascent. This is substantiated by a correlation between chlorine and water content in the melt (derived from the geochemical analysis of plagioclase melt inclusion and matrix glasses from phase I and II of dome growth). The matrix glass from the November 1999 and March 2000 domes indicate an open system degassing regime with a fluid-melt partition coefficient for chlorine of the order of 250–300. September 1997 glasses have higher chlorine contents and may indicate a switch to closed system degassing prior to explosive activity in September and October 1997. The OP-FTIR HCl time series suggests that HCl emission rate is strongly related to changes in eruption rate and we infer an emission rate of over 13.5 kt day^–1 HCl during a period of high extrusion rate in September 2000. A calculation of the HCl emission rate expected for varying extrusion rates from the open-system degassing model suggests a HCl emission rate of the order of 1–4 kt day^–1 is indicative of an extrusion rate of between 2 and 8 m³ s^–1. Monitoring of HCl at Soufrière Hills Volcano provide a proxy for extrusion rate, with changes in ratio between HCl and SO₂ occurring rapidly in the plume. Order of magnitude changes occur in HCl emission rates over the time-scale of hours to days, making these changes easy to detect during the day-to-day monitoring of the volcano. Mean water emission rates are calculated to range from 9–24 kt day^–1 during dome building activity, calculated from the predicted mass ratio of H₂O:HCl in the fluid at the surface and FTIR-derived HCl emission rates.     

Geochemical model of a magmatic–hydrothermal system at the Lastarria volcano, northern Chile

Lastarria volcano (25°10′ S, 68°31′ W; 5,697 m above sea level), located in the Central Andes Volcanic Zone (northern Chile), is characterized by four distinct fumarolic fields with outlet temperatures ranging between 80°C and 408°C as measured between May 2006–March 2008 and April–June 2009. Fumarolic gasses contain significant concentrations of high temperature gas compounds (i.e., SO₂, HCl, HF, H₂, and CO), and isotopic ratios (³He/⁴He, δ¹³C–CO₂, δ¹⁸O–H₂O, and δD–H₂O) diagnostic of magmatic gas sources. Gas equilibria systematics, in both the H₂O-H₂-CO₂-CO-CH₄ and alkane–alkene C₃ system, suggest that Lastarria fumarolic gasses emanate from a superheated vapor that is later cooled and condensed at relatively shallow depths. This two-stage process inhibits the formation of a continuous aquifer (e.g., horizontal liquid layer) at relatively shallow depth. Recent developments in the magmatic gas system may have enhanced the transfer and release of heat causing shallow aquifer vaporization. The consequent pressure increase and aquifer vaporization likely triggered the inflation events beginning in 2003 at the Lastarria volcano.     

Magmatic degassing at Erta 'Ale volcano,Ethiopia

Here we report measurements of the chemical composition and flux of gas emitted from the central lava lake at Erta 'Ale volcano (Ethiopia) made on 15 October 2005. We determined an average SO₂ flux of ∼ 0.69 ± 0.17 kg s^− 1 using zenith sky ultraviolet spectroscopy of the plume, and molar proportions of magmatic H₂O, CO₂, SO₂, CO, HCl and HF gases to be 93.58, 3.66, 2.47, 0.06, 0.19 and 0.04%, respectively, by open-path Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry. Together, these data imply fluxes of 7.3, 0.7, 0.008, 0.03 and 0.004 kg s^− 1 for H₂O, CO₂, CO, HCl and HF, respectively. These are the first FTIR spectroscopic observations at Erta 'Ale, and are also some of the very few gas measurements made at the volcano since the early 1970s (Gerlach, T.M., 1980b. Investigation of volcanic gas analyses and magma outgassing from Erta 'Ale lava lake, Afar, Ethiopia. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 7(3–4): 415–441). We identify significant increases in the proportion of H₂O in the plume with respect to both CO₂ and SO₂ across this 30-year interval, which we attribute to the depletion of volatiles in magma that sourced effusive eruptions during the early 1970s and/or to fractional magma degassing between the two active pit craters located in the summit caldera.     

Anomalous Diffuse CO2 Emission prior to the January 2002 Short-term Unrest at San Miguel Volcano, El Salvador, Central America

On January 16, 2002, short-term unrest occurred at San Miguel volcano. A gas-and-steamash plume rose a few hundred meters above the summit crater. An anomalous microseismicity pattern, about 75 events between 7:30 and 10:30 hours, was also observed. Continuous monitoring of CO₂ efflux on the volcano started on November 24, 2001, in the attempt to provide a multidisciplinary approach for its volcanic surveillance. The background mean of the diffuse CO₂ emission is about 16 g m^-2 d^-1, but a 17- fold increase, up to 270 g m^-2 d^-1, was detected on January 7, nine days before the January 2002 short-term unrest at San Miguel volcano. These observed anomalous changes on diffuse CO₂ degassing could be related to either a sharp increase of CO₂ pressure within the volcanic-hydrothermal system or degassing from an uprising fresh gas-rich magma within the shallow plumbing system of the volcano since meteorological fluctuations cannot explain this observed increase of diffuse CO₂ emission.     

Probing the magma plumbing of Erebus volcano,Antarctica, by open-path FTIR spectroscopy of gas emissions

Gas emissions from Erebus volcano, Antarctica, were measured by open-path Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to understand degassing of its magmatic system. Two degassing phonolite lava lakes were present in the summit crater during observation in December 2004. We report analyses of H₂O, CO₂, CO, SO₂, HF, HCl and OCS, (in order of molar abundance) in the plumes. Variations in the proportions of these species strongly reflect the dynamics of degassing, and sourcing of gas from different depths in the magmatic network. The highest observed ratios of CO₂ and H₂O are consistent with gas extracted from the melt at a depth of up to ∼ 2 km below the lava lakes. Magma degassing above this depth contributes to a higher H₂O/CO₂ proportion in the airborne plume. The ratio therefore reflects the balance of deeper vs. shallower contributions of volatiles and, possibly, a combination of closed- and open-system degassing. We observe a strong contrast in HF content in emissions from the two lava lakes, which we attribute to differing levels of magma ascent and/or cooling and crystallization of the magma supply. Fluxes of all gas species were determined using independent SO₂ flux determinations and measured gas ratios. In the case of CO₂ and water, ∼ 1 and ∼ 0.4 m³ s^− 1, respectively, of parental basanite magma are required to sustain the calculated output. The discrepancy between the two figures is readily explained by sequestration of part of the magma supply at depth such that it only partially degasses its complement of water.     

A new technique to estimate volcanic gas composition: plume measurements with a portable multi-sensor system

A portable multi-sensor system was developed to measure volcanic plumes in order to estimate the chemical composition and temperature of volcanic gases. The multi-sensor system consists of a humidity–temperature sensor, SO₂ electrochemical sensor, CO₂ IR analyzer, pump and flow control units, pressure sensor, data logger, and batteries; the whole system is light (∼5 kg) and small enough to carry in a medium-size backpack. Volcanic plume is a mixture of atmosphere and volcanic gas; therefore volcanic gas composition and temperature can be estimated by subtracting the atmospheric gas background from the plume data. In order to obtain the contrasting data of the plume and the atmosphere, measurements were repeated in and out of the plume. The multi-sensor technique was applied to measure the plume of Tarumae, Tokachi, and Meakan volcanoes, Hokkaido, Japan. Repeated measurements at each volcano gave a consistent composition with ±10–30% errors, depending on the stability of the background atmospheric conditions. Fumarolic gas samples were also collected at the Tokachi volcano by a conventional method, and we found a good agreement (the difference <10%) between the composition estimated by the multi-sensor technique and conventional method. Those results demonstrated that concentration ratios of major volcanic gas species (i.e., H₂O, CO₂, and SO₂) and temperature can be estimated by the new technique without any complicated chemical analyses even for gases emitted from an inaccessible open vent. Estimation of a more detailed gas composition can be also achieved by the combination of alkaline filter techniques to measure Cl/F/S ratios in the plume and other sensors for H₂S and H₂.     

Anomalous Diffuse CO2 Emissions at the Masaya Volcano (Nicaragua) Related to Seismic-Volcanic Unrest

Anomalous changes in the diffuse emission of carbon dioxide within the Masaya caldera have been observed before two seismic events that occurred at 10 and 30 km from the observation site. Their epicenters are located, respectively, south of Managua in Las Colinas (4.3 magnitude) and the Xiloa caldera (3.6 magnitude), in 2002 and 2003, recorded by the geochemical station located at El Comalito, Masaya volcano (Nicaragua). Anomalous increases were observed, which occurred around 50 and 8 days before the main seismic event that took place in Las Colinas, and 4 days before the seismic swarm at the Xiloa caldera, with a maximum CO₂ efflux of 9.3 and 10.7 kg m^?2 day^?1, respectively. The anomalous CO₂ efflux increases remained after filtering with multiple regression analysis was applied to the CO₂ efflux time series, which indicated that atmospheric variables, during the first 4 months, explained 23 % CO₂ variability, whereas, during the rest of the time series, CO₂ efflux values are poorly controlled with only 6 %. The observed anomalies of the diffuse CO₂ emission rate might be related to pressure changes within the volcanic–hydrothermal system and/or to geostructural changes in the crust due to stress/strain changes caused before and during the earthquakes’ formation, and seem not to be related to the activity of the main crater of Masaya volcano.     

New clues on the contribution of Earth’s volcanism to the global mercury cycle

Active volcanoes are thought to be important contributors to the atmospheric mercury (Hg) budget, and this chemical element is one of the most harmful atmospheric pollutants, owing to its high toxicity and long residence time in ecosystems. There is, however, considerable uncertainty over the magnitude of the global volcanic Hg flux, since the existing data on volcanogenic Hg emissions are sparse and often ambiguous. In an attempt to extend the currently limited dataset on volcanogenic Hg emissions, we summarize the results of Hg flux measurements at seven active open-conduit volcanoes; Stromboli, Asama, Miyakejima, Montserrat, Ambrym, Yasur, and Nyiragongo.. Data from the dome-building Soufriere Hills volcano are also reported. Using our determined mercury to SO₂ mass ratios in tandem with the simultaneously-determined SO₂ emission rates, we estimate that the 7 volcanoes have Hg emission rates ranging from 0.2 to 18 t yr^-1 (corresponding to a total Hg flux of ~41 t·yr^-1). Based on our dataset and previous work, we propose that a Hg/SO₂ plume ratio ~10^-5 is best-representative of gas emissions from quiescent degassing volcanoes. Using this ratio, we infer a global volcanic Hg flux from persistent degassing of ~95 t·yr^-1 .     

SO2 Emission from Active Volcanoes Measured Simultaneously by COSPEC and mini-DOAS

We measured SO₂ emission rate from six volcanoes in Latin America (Santa Ana, El Salvador; San Cristóbal and Masaya, Nicaragua; Arenal and Poás, Costa Rica; Tungurahua and Sierra Negra, Ecuador) and from Mt. Etna, Italy, using two different remote sensing techniques: COSPEC (COrrelation SPECtrometer) and miniDOAS (miniaturized Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy). One of the goals of this study was to evaluate the differences in SO₂ emission rates obtained by these two methods. The observed average SO₂ emission rates measured during this study were 2688 t·d⁻¹ from Tungurahua in July 2006, 2375 t·d⁻¹ in September 2005 and 480 t·d⁻¹ in February 2006 from Santa Ana, 1200 t·d⁻¹ in May 2005 from Etna, 955 t·d⁻¹ in March 2006 and 1165 t·d⁻¹ in December 2006 from Masaya, 5400 t·d⁻¹ of March 7, 2006 and 265 t·d⁻¹ in March 2006 from San Cristobal, 113 t·d⁻¹ in April 2006 from Arenal, 104 t·d⁻¹ in April 2006 from Poás and 11 t·d⁻¹ in July 2006 from Sierra Negra volcano. Most of the observed relative differences of SO₂ emission measurements from COSPEC and miniDOAS were lower than 10%.     

Sulfur dioxide emissions from Popocatépetl volcano (Mexico): case study of a high-emission rate, passively degassing erupting volcano

Popocatépetl volcano in central Mexico has been erupting explosively and effusively for almost 4 years. SO₂ emission rates from this volcano have been the largest ever measured using a COSPEC. Pre-eruptive average SO₂ emission rates (2–3 kt/d) were similar to the emission rates measured during the first part of the eruption (up to August 1995) in contrast with the effusive–explosive periods (March 1996–January 1998) during which SO₂ emission rates were higher by a factor of four (9–13 kt/d). Based on a chronology of the eruption and the average SO₂ emission rates per period, the total SO₂ emissions (up to 1 January 1998) are estimated to be about 9 Mt, roughly half as much as the SO₂ emissions from Mount Pinatubo in a shorter period. Popocatépetl volcano is thus considered as a high-emission rate, passively degassing eruptive volcano. SO₂ emission rates and SO₂ emissions are used here to make a mass balance of the erupted magma and related gases. Identified excess SO₂ is explained in terms of continuous degassing of unerupted magma and magma mixing. Fluctuations in SO₂ emission rate may be a result of convection and crystallization in the chamber or the conduits, cleaning and sealing of the plumbing system, and/or SO₂ scrubbing by the hydrothermal system.     

Forecast of volcanic eruptions by chemical methods

From the magmatic emanations differentiation point of view it is possible to calculate some ratios such as F/CO₂, Cl/CO₂, SO₂/CO₂, SO₂/H₂S, H₂S/CO₂ and CO₂/N₂ in the tumarolic gases for the forecasting of volcanic activity. In order to predict the cruptions of a volcano it is needed to select several fumaroles or hot springs having different regimes of variation of the above ratios. The study of some fumaroles composition at the Asama. Mihara, Kirishima and other volcanoes in Japan showed a close connection between volcanic gas compositions and state of the volcanoes.