Transverse structure of tidal and residual flow and sediment concentration in estuaries

An analytical and a numerical model are used to understand the response of velocity and sediment distributions over Gaussian-shaped estuarine cross-sections to changes in tidal forcing and water depth. The estuaries considered here are characterized by strong mixing and a relatively weak along-channel density gradient. It is also examined under what conditions the fast, two-dimensional analytical flow model yields results that agree with those obtained with the more complex three-dimensional numerical model. The analytical model reproduces and explains the main velocity and sediment characteristics in large parts of the parameter space considered (average tidal velocity amplitude, 0.1–1 m s^− 1 and maximum water depth, 10–60 m). Its skills are lower for along-channel residual flows if nonlinearities are moderate to high (strong tides in deep estuaries) and for transverse flows and residual sediment concentrations if the Ekman number is small (weak tides in deep estuaries). An important new aspect of the analytical model is the incorporation of tidal variations in the across-channel density gradient, causing a double circulation pattern in the transverse flow during slack tides. The gradient also leads to a new tidally rectified residual flow component via net advection of along-channel tidal momentum by the density-induced transverse tidal flow. The component features landward currents in the channel and seaward currents over the slopes and is particularly effective in deeper water. It acts jointly with components induced by horizontal density differences, Coriolis-induced tidal rectification and Stokes discharge, resulting in different along-channel residual flow regimes. The residual across-channel density gradient is crucial for the residual transverse circulation and for the residual sediment concentration. The clockwise density-induced circulation traps sediment in the fresher water over the left slope (looking up-estuary in the northern hemisphere). Model results are largely consistent with available field data of well-mixed estuaries.     

Numerical modelling of stratified tidal flow over a fjord sill

Field observations of tidally driven stratified flow in the sill area of Knight Inlet (British Columbia) revealed a very complicated structure, which includes solitary waves, upstream bifurcation, hydraulic jump and mixing processes. Recent observations suggest that the flow instabilities on the plunging pycnocline at the lee side of the sill may contribute to solitary wave generation through a subharmonic interaction. The present study reports on a series of numerical experiments of stratified tidal flow in Knight Inlet performed with the help of a fine resolution fully non-linear non-hydrostatic numerical model. The model reproduces all important stages of the baroclinic tidal dynamics observed in Knight Inlet. Results demonstrate that solitary waves are generated apart from the area of hydrodynamic instability. Accelerating tidal flux forms a baroclinic hydraulic jump just above the top of the sill, whereas the bifurcations and zones of shear instabilities are formed downstream of the sill. The first baroclinic mode having the largest velocity escapes from the generation area and propagates upstream, disintegrating further into a packet of solitary waves reviling the classical “non-subharmonic” mechanism of generation. The remaining part of the disturbance (slow baroclinic modes) is arrested by tidal flow and carried away to the lee side of the obstacle, where shear instability, billows and mixing processes are developed. Some sensitivity runs were performed for different value of tidal velocity.     

食物与桡足类营养级对亚热带分层水库浮游动物群落结构的影响

于2014年10-12月,采集厦门溪东水库浮游动物、浮游植物、浮游细菌与悬浮物样品,分析浮游动物群落与食物质量和食物浓度的关系,探讨桡足类营养级变化对浮游动物的影响.结果 表明,空间上后生浮游动物群落结构在水库不同水层间的差异不显著;时间上桡足类在水华期和非水华期的差异不显著,枝角类和轮虫在水华期和非水华期的差异显著....     

Determination of the freshwater budget of tidal flats from measurements near a tidal inlet

The freshwater budget of a tidal flat area is evaluated from long-term hydrographic time series from an observation pole positioned in a tidal channel in the Hörnum Basin (Germany). For each tidal cycle, the freshwater budget is calculated from the total imported and exported water volumes and the corresponding mean densities. The variability of the budget on a tidal scale is characterised by a period of twice the tidal period, exhibiting a minimum when the tidal flats are dry around daylight hours during the foregoing low tide, and a maximum when low tide occurs at night; enhanced evaporation on the flats at daylight hours is identified as the driving process. On the average over one year, while winter observations are missing, the freshwater budget is negative for the years 2002–2005 and positive only for 2006. The interannual mean is negative and amounts to a freshwater loss of about 2 mm day⁻¹, although the large-scale climate in this region is humid. The results demonstrate that the bulk parametrisations for the latent and sensible heat flux between the ocean and the atmosphere must not be applied for the tidelands.     

Instabilities in a staircase stratified shear flow

We study stratified shear flow instability where the density profile takes the form of a staircase of interfaces separating uniform layers. Internal gravity waves riding on density interfaces can resonantly interact due to a background shear flow, resulting in the Taylor-Caulfield instability. The many steps of the density profile permit a multitude of interactions between different interfaces, and a rich variety of Taylor-Caulfield instabilities. We analyse the linear instability of a staircase with piecewise-constant density profile embedded in a background linear shear flow, locating all the unstable modes and identifying the strongest. The interaction between nearest-neighbour interfaces leads to the most unstable modes. The nonlinear dynamics of the instabilities are explored in the long-wavelength, weakly stratified limit (the defect approximation). Unstable modes on adjacent interfaces saturate by rolling up the intervening layer into a distinctive billow. These nonlinear structures coexist when stacked vertically and are bordered by the sharp density gradients that are the remnants of the steps of the original staircase. Horizontal averages remain layer-like.     

The attenuation of tidal and subtidal oscillations in the Patos Lagoon estuary

The single, long and narrow channel that usually connects choked coastal lagoons to the ocean can serve as a natural hydraulic low-pass filter that reduces or eliminates tidal and subtidal effects inside the lagoon. This study proposes an alternative method of estimating the attenuation of the tidal and subtidal oscillations throughout the Patos Lagoon estuary. The attenuation is estimated for conditions of contrasting river runoff and weather (summer and winter). A high-pass/low-pass filter (fast fourier transformation technique – FFT) is applied to time series of sea-surface elevation (SSE) measured at the mouth of the Patos Lagoon. The resulting high-frequency (tidal) and low-frequency (subtidal) signals are used in independent simulations to force the TELEMAC-2D model. Attenuation of the tidal and subtidal signals throughout the estuary is estimated by applying cross-spectral analysis between the model-generated SSE time series at different locations throughout the estuary and the filtered SSE time series measured at the mouth. Results from the proposed method suggest that: (1) the low-frequency (subtidal) oscillations are less attenuated and propagate further than the high-frequency (tidal) oscillations in the Patos Lagoon estuary; (2) the filtering capability of the Patos Lagoon estuary is expected to follow a seasonal pattern, although further investigations on an interannual time scale are recommended in order to confirm this hypothesis; (3) the influence of the oceanic boundary processes on the SSE dynamics of the lagoon is restricted to the lower estuary. Further inland, the local forcing generated by the wind and freshwater input is likely to be the main forcing effect controlling the dynamics of the system. The proposed method proved to be an efficient and alternative way of estimating the attenuation of energy in the tidal and subtidal bands throughout the access channel of a choked coastal lagoon located in an area of reduced tidal influence.Responsible Editor: Iris Grabemann     

Sensitivity of tidal characteristics in double inlet systems to momentum dissipation on tidal flats: a perturbation analysis

In a tidal channel with adjacent tidal flats, along–channel momentum is dissipated on the flats during rising tides. This leads to a sink of along–channel momentum. Using a perturbative method, it is shown that the momentum sink slightly reduces the M₂ amplitude of both the sea surface elevation and current velocity and favours flood dominant tides. These changes in tidal characteristics (phase and amplitude of sea surface elevations and currents) are noticeable if widths of tidal flats are at least of the same order as the channel width, and amplitudes and gradients of along–channel velocity are large. The M₂ amplitudes are reduced because stagnant water flows from the flats into the channel, thereby slowing down the current. The M₄ amplitudes and phases change because the momentum sink acts as an advective term during the fall of the tide, such a term generates flood dominant currents. For a prototype embayment that resembles the Marsdiep–Vlie double–inlet system of the Western Wadden Sea, it is found that for both the sea surface elevation and current velocity, including the momentum sink, lead to a decrease of approximately 2% in M₂ amplitudes and an increase of approximately 25% in M₄ amplitudes. As a result, the net import of coarse sediment is increased by approximately 35%, while the transport of fine sediment is hardly influenced by the momentum sink. For the Marsdiep–Vlie system, the M₂ sea surface amplitude obtained from the idealised model is similar to that computed with a realistic three–dimensional numerical model whilst the comparison with regard to M₄ improves if momentum sink is accounted for.     

Persistence and metallic composition of paint particles in sediments from a tidal inlet

Concentrations of Cu, Pb, Sn and Zn have been determined in sediment (<500 μm) and macroscopic paint particles (>500 μm) retrieved from sections of two cores collected from a tidal inlet of the Plym estuary, southwest England. Paint particles contributed up to about 0.2% of the total mass retrieved from each section and were most abundant towards the base of the cores where, according to (210)Pb dating, deposition took place about a decade prior to sampling. Metal concentrations in the paint particles pooled from the sections were highly variable, typically spanning two orders of magnitude in each core, and were greatest for Cu and Zn (up to 460,000 and 170,000 μg g(-1), respectively) due to their use in contemporary antifouling formulations applied to boat hulls. Concentrations of metals in the sediment were, however, relatively invariant, an effect attributed to the abundance and dispersion of microscopic paint particles throughout the cores.     

Wind mixing of a stratified shear flow

The response of a shear flow to an imposed wind stress is studied both theoretically and by means of a numerical turbulence model. It is shown that for small initial gradient Richardson numbers (Ri₀ ≲ 4/3) a tail wind causes the slab velocity of the upper mixed layer to decrease. The theory is based on the assumption that during the wind-induced entrainment process the overall Richardson number will adjust to a quasi-constant value (Ri_u ≈ 2/3). The turbulence model is the so-called k-ɛ model. It is calibrated to five conditions by tuning only one constant. The details of the deepening process and the density and velocity distributions of the upper mixed layer during this anomalous behavior are thus made clear. The results imply that the common practice of estimating the total current velocity by vector addition of the original velocity and the wind-induced velocity (calculated from models based on an ocean at rest) may lead to an overestimation of the current speed.     

The residual flow in a tidal stream

Summary Consideration is given to the problem of the boundary conditions that must be specified when calculating the residual flow in a tidal stream. A particular example is discussed that relates to the tidal flow adjacent to a straight coastline. It is shown that the long-shore mean volume flux of water must be prescribed in order to determine the corresponding residual flow. A theory is given that relates to flows in water of non-uniform depth, and by considering a particular case, it is shown that this may have a profound effect upon the structure of the residual current system.     

Variation of overtides by wave enhanced bottom drag in a North Florida tidal inlet

Month-long observations of waves and tidal currents at Ponce de Leon Inlet, North Florida are used to investigate the importance of wave-induced bottom drag as a mechanism for overtide generation in estuaries. While bottom drag can in theory lead to overtide generation, in practice, resolving unambiguously this effect is difficult as it tends to be overshadowed by the stronger effect of diurnal–semidiurnal tidal variance. Bottom boundary layer numerical simulations based on observational data suggest that waves can cause the bottom drag experienced by currents to increase by a factor of 1.7, compared with relatively calm conditions. Despite the relatively short duration and limited scope of the experiment, the analysis suggests that overtide modulations (East–West velocity components of the 5th and 6th diurnal constituents) are correlated with wave-enhanced drag trends. Therefore, wave-enhanced bottom drags may be enhancing generation of overtides. Further work is necessary to understand the scope and the strength of this mechanism, in relation to the characteristics (e.g., flow direction) of individual overtides.     

Two-dimensional equilibrium morphological modelling of a tidal inlet: an entropy based approach

The management of tidal inlets requires the accurate prediction of equilibrium morphologies. In areas where the flow from rivers is highly regulated, it is important to give decision makers the ability to determine optimal flow management schemes, in order to allow tidal inlets to function as naturally as possible, and minimise the risk of inlet closure. The River Murray Mouth in South Australia is one such problem area. Drought and the retention of water for irrigation and urban water consumption have limited the amount of water entering the estuary. As a result, sediment from the coastal environment is being deposited in the mouth of the estuary, reducing the effect of further coastal interactions. Currently, situations such as this are modelled using traditional process-based methods, where wave, current, sediment transport and sediment balance modules are linked together in a time-stepping process. The modules are reapplied and assessed until a stable morphology is formed. In this paper, new options for modelling equilibrium morphologies of tidal inlets are detailed, which alleviate some of the shortfalls of traditional process-based models, such as the amplification of small errors and reliance on initial conditions. The modelling problem is approached in this paper from a different angle and involves the use of entropy based objective functions, which are optimised in order to find equilibrium morphologies. In this way, characteristics of a system at equilibrium can be recognised and a stable system predicted without having to step through time. This paper also details the use of self-organisation based modelling methods, another non-traditional model application, where local laws and feedback result in the formation of a global stable equilibrium morphology. These methods represent a different approach to traditional models, without some of the characteristics that may add to their limitations. Responsible Editor: Alejandro Souza     

Nonlinear shock structure in a weakly ionised magnetoplasma

The formation of a neutral induced weak nonlinear shock structure in a weakly ionised magnetoplasma has been analytically investigated. Using the reductive perturbation method, basic dynamical equations of a three-component (electron, ion and neutral) plasma have been reduced to a well-known Burger equation which can support a weak shock solution. Its stationary and initial value solutions have been derived to describe the characteristics of the weak shock profile. Asymptotic behavior of the Burger solution results in a saw-tooth structure which has a practical implication to predict the nonlinear steepened structure of the nighttime irregularity in the lower portion of the Earth’s ionosphere. Accordingly, it is suggested that the observation of saw-tooth shape of nighttime irregularity at 92 km could be attributed to the nonlinear saturation of the NILF mode instability as proposed by Dwivedi and Das in 1992. However, exact experimental verification of this suggestion requires more data on nighttime irregularity in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere (80-95 km) for a wide range of scale sizes extending up to about 1 km and above.     

Numerical modelling of stratified flow: a spectral approach

A numerical formulation is developed to solve the three-dimensional hydrodynamic equations which describe flow in a stratified sea.Arbitrary continuous physically realistic variations of density and eddy viscosity can be included in the model, which is sufficiently flexible to be applicable to sea areas of any horizontal extent and depth. A continuous current profile from sea surface to sea bed, is computed with the model. A method for expanding computed current profiles in terms of vertical modes is proposed and the contribution of these modes to the current profiles is considered.The time variation of the wind-induced circulation of a stratified lake in response to a suddenly imposed and maintained wind stress is examined. Calculations show that the wind-driven surface current is modulated by the internal seiche motion of the lake.     

Critical-level crossing of rossby-gravity wave-packets in a linear-shear,stratified flow

Abstract

The propagation of Rossby-gravity waves, which are of astronomical interest near the critical level (or corotation point), is considered in a linear-shear, exponentially stratified flow by means of a ray tracing method. It is shown, using the analytic solutions for the stream function, that for a Richardson number J > 1/4 a wave-packet can cross the critical level in a finite time. In the unstable stratified case (J < 0), it cannot cross the critical level for large |J| (J < 0), but may do so for some intermediate |J| values.

Based on the above results, the possible existence of the regular normal mode with a discrete point eigenvalue in the continuous spectrum is discussed for bounded systems.     

Slow quasigeostrophic unstable modes of a lens vortex in a continuously stratified flow

This work addresses the linear dynamics underlying the formation of density interfaces at the periphery of energetic vortices, well outside the vortex core, both in the radial and axial directions. We compute numerically the unstable modes of an anticyclonic Gaussian vortex lens in a continuously stratified rotating fluid. The most unstable mode is a slow mode, associated with a critical layer instability located at the vortex periphery. Although the most unstable disturbance has a characteristic vertical scale which is comparable to the vortex height, interestingly, the critical levels of the successively fastest growing modes are closely spaced at intervals along the axial direction that are much smaller than the vortex height.     

Flow structure at a trifurcation near a North Florida inlet

Barrier island estuarine systems are common along the East and Gulf coasts of Florida. While some information regarding these systems is available in report form, detailed observational studies of their hydrodynamic properties are scarce in existing literature. Hydrography and current velocity were observed at a tidally driven coastline trifurcation, adjacent to the St. Augustine Inlet, Florida, in the Guana–Tolomato–Matanzas Estuary. Data were collected over nearly a semidiurnal period on February 2, 2006. The domain is well mixed and convergence fronts appear aligned with bathymetry. Eighty-six percent of the tidal variability in the study area is explained by the semidiurnal harmonic, which propagates through the system as a quasi-standing wave. The mean flow structure at the inlet (inflow in channel and outflow over shoals) governs intra-estuarine communication and is consistent with theoretical residual flows produced by a standing tidal wave. The governing force balance is between advective acceleration and the barotropic pressure gradient. The mean flow structure across the inlet might be explained by both Li and O’Donnell's [2005. The effect of channel length on the residual circulation in tidally dominated channels. Journal of Physical Oceanography 35, 1826–1840] analytical model, and Stommel and Farmer's [1952. On the nature of estuarine circulation. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, Ref. 52–51, 52–63, 52–88] source–sink analog. Flow characteristics for St. Augustine Inlet are compared with Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina; North Inlet, South Carolina; and Sand Shoal Inlet, Virginia. While these systems share similar characteristics, a common subtidal flow structure is not evident.     

The transverse dynamics of flow in a tidal channel within a greater strait

Vessel-mounted ADCP measurements were conducted to describe the transverse structure of flow between the two headland tips in Khuran Channel, south of Iran (26° 45′ N), where the highest tidal velocities in spring tides were ~?1.8 m/s. Current profiles were obtained using a 614.4 kHz TRDI WorkHorse Broadband ADCP over nine repetitions of three cross-channel transects during one semidiurnal tidal cycle. The 2.2-km-long transects ran north/south across the channel. A least-square fit to semidiurnal, quarter-diurnal, and sixth diurnal harmonics was used to separate the tidal signals from the observed flow. Spatial gradients showed that the greatest lateral shears and convergences were found over the northern channel and near the northern headland tip due to very sharp bathymetric changes in this area. Contrary to the historical assumption, the across-channel momentum balance in the Khuran Channel was ageostrophic. The current study represents one of the few examples reported where the lateral friction influences the across-channel momentum balance.