Sedimentary facies and evolution in the Qiantang River incised valley,eastern China

This paper deals with the sedimentary facies and evolution of the Qiantang River (QR) estuary, and the characteristics and formation of the incised valley sequences and the related shallow biogenic gas reservoir, on the basis of analysis of over 500 cores.The result shows that, since the last glaciation, the Late Quaternary formation of the QR estuary area underwent three stages: (1) deep-cutting stage; (2) rapid-filling stage; and (3) burial stage. The fall of global sea level during the last glacial maximum enhanced the fluvial gradient and river cutting, resulting in the formation of the large-scale QR and Taihu incised valleys, with the interfluve being exposed to air on both flanks of the incised valley. Fluvial terraces at the elevations are present near the present QR estuarine mouth, corresponding to 60–70, 90–100 and 115–125 m burial depths. The valleys were filled rapidly with fluvial sediments during the post-glacial period; with the rise of sea level, the river mouth migrated to landward, and backwater and retrogressive aggradation was enhanced. The QR and Taihu incised valleys are associated with an early filling and transgressive channel-infilling sequence formation, and a late filling and transgressive floodplain-estuary formation. Subsequently, the QR valley was buried under estuarine-marine and estuarine sand bar sediments. From bottom to top, the incised valley successions can be grouped into four sedimentary facies: river channel, floodplain-estuary, estuary-shallow marine, and estuary sand bar.The thickness of the river channel-infilling deposits is controlled mainly by base level rising, backwater, retrogressive aggradation and neotectonism. Further, localized thickening took place where deeper scour pools were present in the incised valley or fluvial terraces were formed during the fall of elative sea level.During the deposition of the floodplain-estuary facies, the conditions of sea level rise, tidal regime, sediment supply and accommodation space were suitable for the development of a tidal ridge system; the sand lenses associated with this facies may represent a tidal ridge system in the incised valley. At the later stage when the estuarine sand bars were formed, the sedimentary conditions were no longer favourable, resulting in absence of sand ridge deposits. Biogenic gas is stored in the floodplain-estuary sand lenses of the incised valleys. The Changjiang River provides the major sediment supply for the QR estuary sand bar, and the QR carried sediments constitute only a small portion of the deposits.     

Core lithologies and their constraints on gas-hydrate occurrence in the East Sea, offshore Korea: Results from the site UBGH1-9

Drilling at the site UBGH1-9, offshore Korea in 2007, revealed varied gas-hydrate saturation with depth and a wide variety of core litholgies, demonstrating how the variations in the lithology are linked with those in gas-hydrate saturation and morphology. Discrete excursions to low chlorinity values from in situ background chlorinity level occur between 63 and 151 mbsf. In this occurrence zone, gas-hydrate saturations estimated from the low chlorinity anomalies range up to 63.5% of pore volume with an average of 9.9% and do not show a clear depth-dependent trend. Sedimentary facies analysis based on grain-size distribution and sedimentary structures revealed nine sediment facies which mainly represent hemipelagic muds and fine- to medium-grained turbidites. According to the sedimentary facies distribution, the core sediments are divided into three facies associations (FA): FA I (0–98 mbsf) consisting mainly of alternating thin- to medium-bedded hemipelagic mud and turbidite sand or mud beds, FA II (98–126 mbsf) dominated by medium- to very thick-bedded turbidite sand or sandy debris flow beds, and FA III (126–178 mbsf) characterized by thick hemipelagic mud without intervening discrete turbidite sand layers. Thermal anomalies from IR scan, mousse-like and soupy structures on split-core surfaces, non-destructive measurements of pressure cores, and comparison of gas-hydrate saturations with sand contents of corresponding pore-water squeeze cakes, collectively suggest that the gas hydrate at the site UBGH1-9 generally occurs in two different types: “pore-filling” type preferentially associated with thin- to medium-turbidite sand beds in the FA I and “fracture-filling” type which occurs as hydrate veins or nodules in hemipelagic mud of the FA III. Gas-hydrate saturation in the FA II is generally anomalously low despite the dominance of turbidite sand or sandy debris flow beds, suggesting insufficient methane supply.     

Stratigraphic signatures of punctuated rise in relative sea-level in an estuary-dominated heterolithic succession: Incised valley fills of the Toarcian Ostreaelv Formation,Neill Klinter Group (Jameson Land,East Greenland)

The Ostreaelv Formation (latest Pliensbachian–Toarcian) of the Neill Klinter Group is exposed along a >105 km wide, ENE-trending section in Jameson Land, East Greenland. Deposition took place in a large embayment (Jameson Land Basin) that was connected to the proto-Norwegian-Greenland Sea. Lithofacies in the Ostreaelv Formation range from clean sandstone to muddy heterolithic facies typified by strong grain-size contrasts.The Ostreaelv Formation is divided into four distinct and overall retrograding allostratigraphic units each composed of a characteristic set of tide-influenced, tide-dominated and wave-influenced facies associations. The allostratigraphic units are bounded by subaerial unconformities, interpreted as sequence boundaries, and are up to 75 m thick and 16 to >20 km in width. The allostratigraphic units include a sandy heterolithic estuary bay-head delta succession overlain by two sandy tide-dominated estuary fill successions, interbedded with a muddy heterolithic offshore marine succession. Each of the three estuarine allostratigraphic units was accumulated in an incised valley formed during fall in relative sea level and filled during successive transgressions with sediment supplied from marine and reworked fluvial deposits.In the three incised valleys fluvial sediments were deposited on top of an initial subaerial unconformity surface (SU) and were later reworked by succeeding transgressive ravinement along a transgressive surface (TS), thus creating combined SU/TS sequence boundaries. The data from the Ostreaelv Formation also provides knowledge and conceptual understanding of valley infill processes (tidal current, wave and fluvial energy), and both lateral and vertical variations in lithofacies architecture within incised valleys.Moreover, the study provides quantitative input data, such as incised valley dimensions, sand-containing capacity, and geometry to subsurface reservoir characterisation and modelling efforts of estuary fill successions.     

The biogenic gas potential of the submarine canyon systems of Plio-Peistocene foreland Basin,southwestern Taiwan

Biogenic gas was accidentally discovered and produced from the Plio/Pleistocene formation of the Hsinying gas field in southwestern Taiwan in 1989. A stratigraphic trapping mechanism related to the evolution of submarine canyon systems in the Plio-Peistocene foreland basin has been proposed in a previous study which explained underestimated recoverable gas reserve before drilling. To verify this shallow gas exploration hypothesis and to systematically evaluate the biogenic gas generation and entrapment potential of the submarine canyon systems, seismic interpretation, high-resolution sequence stratigraphic interpretation, seismic attribute analysis and geochemical analysis were performed and integrated in this study. Twenty-nine submarine canyons mapped mainly trend in a NE direction, except the NW trending Eurchungchi submarine canyons located near the Chiali paleo-high. Bright seismic amplitudes were often observed at the incised valley heads of the canyon systems. The shales located near the incised valley heads and deposited during flooding stage possess the highest biogenic gas generation potential, as canyon fill reveals the second highest. Due to the high sediment accumulation rate in the foreland basin, organic matter in such a depositional environment tends to become diluted. A Class III AVO anomaly, inverted impedance lower than 4.7 e + 6 kg/M³*M/S and A/B (the ratio between the target horizon amplitude and the RMS amplitude from the background strata) greater than 1.78 were identified as valid direct gas indicators as sand is buried shallower than 1000 m. Class IV AVO anomaly and A/B greater than 1.4 were concluded to be the indicators of gas sand in the case that sand is buried deeper than 1600 m. Based on the results of sequence stratigraphic interpretation and the consistency between spatial geometries of seismic attributes and those of the submarine canyons, a stratigraphic trap associated with the incised valley heads was concluded to be the original gas entrapment style of the Hsinying and the Kuantian gas fields. Biogenic gas migrated after being trapped startigraphically, hence contributing to the present-day gas field structure. Due to the prevalent erosional features of the submarine canyons on the time structural maps, different types of stratigraphic traps formed in combination with faults and submarine canyons can be recognized easily.     

Pliocene basin-floor fan sedimentation in the Bay of Bengal (offshore northwest Myanmar)

This study addresses reservoir development and hydrocarbon occurrence of the late Pliocene basin-floor fan deposits in the northeastern Bay of Bengal. The G-series turbiditic sandstones host dry gases, biogenic in origin, of three gas fields that are juxtaposed on the western flank of the NW–SE anticline. The gas reservoirs are stacked in back-stepping fashion being sourced from northwest as part of the Bengal fan. The Shwe field (Shwe fan) has an elongate fan-shaped morphology (12 km long and 4 km wide) and occurs about 30 km off the base of slope.The Shwe field reservoirs consist of two contrasting types of turbidite deposits, lower G5.2 and upper G3.2 reservoirs. The G5.2 is characterized by stacked lobe elements in which amalgamated and layered sheet sandstones provide an excellent vertical connectivity and high net-to-gross ratio (avg. 86%). On the contrary, the G3.2 represents overbank deposits, which is characterized by thin-bedded sandstones with low net-to-gross ratio (avg. 33%) as well as low-resistivity pays.Aside from the primary depositional framework, post-depositional modifications appear to have greatly affected Shwe fan, adding complexity in establishing a geological model. A line of evidence suggests that G5.2 lobe sands were injected into overlying G3.2, mostly in the form of sills. The injected sand beds measured from G3.2 cores account for 10 m, more than half of the total net sand. The sand injection is thought to be triggered by slumping that overpressured G5.2 lobes. Post-G3.2 erosional channel complexes incised into G5.2 and G3.2, ultimately diminishing gas pool extent as well as dividing Shwe fan into multiple compartments.     

Breaching-related turbidites in fluvial and estuarine channels: Examples from outcrop and core and implications to reservoir models

An understanding of the paleoenvironment and the main sedimentary processes behind preserved deposits is crucial to correctly interpret and represent lithofacies and facies associations in geomodels that are used in the hydrocarbon industry, particularly when a limited dataset of cores is available. In this paper a fairly common facies association is discussed containing massive sands - here defined as thick (>0.5 m) structureless sand beds devoid of primary sedimentary structures, or with some faint lamination - deposited by mass failures of channel banks in deep fluvial and estuarine channels. Amongst geologists it is generally accepted that liquefaction is the main trigger of large bank failures in sandy subaqueous slopes. However, evidence is mounting that for sand deposits a slow, retrogressive failure mechanism of a steep subaqueous slope, known as breaching, is the dominant process. A model of breaching-induced turbidity current erosion and sedimentation is presented that explains the presence of sheet-like massive sands and channel-like massive sands and the sedimentary structures of the related deposits. Sheet-like packages of spaced planar lamination that are found together with massive sand bodies in deposits of these environments are identified as proximal depositional elements of breach failure events. The model, acquired from sedimentary structures in deposits in the Eocene estuarine Vlierzele Sands, Belgium, is applied to outcrops of the Dinantian fluvial Fell Sandstone, England, and cores of the Tilje and Nansen fms (Lower Jurassic, Norwegian Continental Shelf). The possible breach failure origin of some other massive sands described in literature from various ancient shallow water environments is discussed. Breach failure generated massive sands possibly also form in deep marine settings. The potentially thick and homogeneous, well-sorted sand deposits bear good properties for hydrocarbon flow when found in such an environment. However, in case of deposition in an estuarine or fluvial channel, these sand bodies are spatially constricted and careful facies interpretation is key to identifying this. When constructing a static reservoir model, this needs to be considered both for in-place volume calculations as well as drainage strategies.     

Holocene sedimentation history of the major fan valleys of Monterey fan

There are three major fan valleys on upper Monterey fan. Deep-tow geophysical profiles and 40 sediment cores provide the basis for evaluation of the sedimentation histories of these valleys. Monterey fan valley leads from Monterey canyon to a major suprafan and is bounded by levees that crest more than 400 m above the valley floor. The valley passes through a large z-bend or meander. Monterey East fan valley joins Monterey fan valley at the meander at about 150 m above the valley floor, and marks an earlier position of the lower Monterey fan valley. Ascension valley, a hanging contributary to the Monterey fan valley, appears to have once been the shoreward head of the lower part of the present Monterey fan valley. The relief of Monterey fan valley appears from deep-tow profiles to be erosional. The valley is floored with sand. Holocene turbidity currents do not overtop the levees 400 m above the valley floor, but do at times overflow and transport sand into Monterey East valley, producing a sandy floor. An 1100 m by 300 m dune field was observed on side scan sonar in Monterey East valley.Ascension fan valley was floored with sand during glacial intervals of lowered sea level, then was cut off from its sand source as sea level rose. A narrow (500 m), erosional, meandering channel was incised into the flat valley floor; the relief features otherwise appear depositional, with a hummocky topography perhaps produced in the manner of a braided riverbed. The sand is mantled by about 6 m of probable Holocene mud. Hummocky relief on the back side of the northwestern levees of both Ascension and Monterey valleys is characteristic of many turbidite valleys in the northeast Pacific. The hummocky topography is produced by dune-like features that migrate toward levee crests during growth.     

Facies and architecture of a tide-dominated segment of the Late Pliocene Orinoco Delta (Morne L'Enfer Formation) SW Trinidad

Exceptionally high shelf-subsidence rates (0.8–6.0+ mm/yr), a marked basinward stepping (to east and northeast) of the paleo-Orinoco shelf prism and post-Pliocene uplift of Trinidad all allow the sedimentary facies, process regime and the evolution of the Late Miocene Orinoco Delta to be evaluated from extensive outcrops along the southwest, and south coasts of Trinidad. The ca. 200 km easterly growth (late Miocene to present) of the Orinoco shelf-margin was generated by repeated cross-shelf, regressive–transgressive transits of the Orinoco Delta system. The studied Late Pliocene segment of this shelf-margin prism allows insight to how this margin was built. The Morne L'Enfer Formation (Late Pliocene) along Cedros Bay and Erin Bay in SW Trinidad, provides a window into the facies and process regime of the ca. 850 m-thick deltaic succession at an inner-shelf location some 100 km landward of the coeval shelf edge. Regressive facies associations include tide-influenced delta-front to prodelta deposits (FA1) within upward coarsening units, shoreface to offshore deposits, possibly with prograding mud cape deposits (FA2), and fluvial distributary channel infills (FA3), as well as muddy sediments of floodbasins and coastal embayments between the distributary channels (FA4), and tide-influenced bay-head delta deposits (FA5). Transgressive facies associations show an overall upward fining of grain size and include inner estuary distributary channels with minimal brackish-water or tidal influence (FA6), transition zone fluvial-tidal distributary channels (FA7), tide-dominated mid-outer estuary channel-bars (FA8), and intertidal to supratidal flat units (FA9). The tidal signals in both deltaic and estuarine units include bi-directional paleocurrents (channels), frequent mud drapes within stacked sets of cross-strata (delta-front), fluid mud layers, flaser, wavy and lenticular bedding, and ubiquitous spring-neap stratal bundling. The tide dominated nature of the paleo-delta in SW Trinidad was likely due to its location within an embayed proto-Columbus Channel, though by analogy with the modern Orinoco Delta, it is predicted that the same succession becomes wave dominated to the east as the delta emerged to the open ocean and approached the outer shelf and shelf-edge region. It is difficult to estimate how much of the abundant mud in the Pliocene deltaic sequences was derived from inner-shelf littoral currents with suspended Amazon River mud. The studied Late Pliocene Morne L'Enfer succession contains some 17 high-frequency transgressive–regressive sequences, each ca. 40–60 m thick, estimated to have an average time duration of 90–120 Ky. By analogy, the last glacial cycle on the Orinoco shelf saw the delta prograding across the 200 km-wide shelf to the shelf edge in ca. 100 Ky, then transgressing back to its present position in 20 Ky. A predicted model of the linkage between the study succession on SW Trinidad and its eastward continuation offshore towards the outer shelf and shelf edge in the Columbus Basin is suggested.     

Gas hydrate saturation in the Krishna–Godavari basin from P-wave velocity and electrical resistivity logs

During the Indian National Gas Hydrate Program (NGHP) Expedition 01, a series of well logs were acquired at several sites across the Krishna–Godavari (KG) Basin. Electrical resistivity logs were used for gas hydrate saturation estimates using Archie’s method. The measured in situ pore-water salinity, seafloor temperature and geothermal gradients were used to determine the baseline pore-water resistivity. In the absence of core data, Arp’s law was used to estimate in situ pore-water resistivity. Uncertainties in the Archie’s approach are related to the calibration of Archie coefficient (a), cementation factor (m) and saturation exponent (n) values. We also have estimated gas hydrate saturation from sonic P-wave velocity logs considering the gas hydrate in-frame effective medium rock-physics model. Uncertainties in the effective medium modeling stem from the choice of mineral assemblage used in the model. In both methods we assume that gas hydrate forms in sediment pore space. Combined observations from these analyses show that gas hydrate saturations are relatively low (<5% of the pore space) at the sites of the KG Basin. However, several intervals of increased saturations were observed e.g. at Site NGHP-01-03 (S_h = 15–20%, in two zones between 168 and 198 mbsf), Site NGHP-01-05 (S_h = 35–38% in two discrete zone between 70 and 90 mbsf), and Site NGHP-01-07 shows the gas hydrate saturation more than 25% in two zones between 75 and 155 mbsf. A total of 10 drill sites and associated log data, regional occurrences of bottom-simulating reflectors from 2D and 3D seismic data, and thermal modeling of the gas hydrate stability zone, were used to estimate the total amount of gas hydrate within the KG Basin. Average gas hydrate saturations for the entire gas hydrate stability zone (seafloor to base of gas hydrate stability), sediment porosities, and statistically derived extreme values for these parameters were defined from the logs. The total area considered based on the BSR seismic data covers ∼720 km². Using the statistical ranges in all parameters involved in the calculation, the total amount of gas from gas hydrate in the KG Basin study area varies from a minimum of ∼5.7 trillion-cubic feet (TCF) to ∼32.1 TCF.     

A comparative study of representative 2D microstructures in Shaly and Sandy facies of Opalinus Clay (Mont Terri,Switzerland) inferred form BIB-SEM and MIP methods

A combination of Broad-Ion-Beam (BIB) polishing and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) has been used to study qualitatively and quantitatively the microstructure of Opalinus Clay in 2D. High quality 2D cross-sections (ca. 1 mm²), belonging to the Shaly and Sandy facies of Opalinus Clay, were investigated down to the nanometre scale. In addition Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP) and X-Ray powder Diffraction experiments have been used to extend characterization of the microstructure to the mm–cm scale on bulk volume sample material. Interestingly, both end-member samples of the Opalinus Clay show qualitatively similar mineralogy and pore characteristics as well as a comparable pore size distribution and pore morphology within the different mineral phases and mineral aggregates. Differences between the facies are mainly due to variations in mineral size and mineral amount present in the alternating layers of the different facies. Six different porous mineral phases have been identified and the pores have been subdivided into ten different pore types. Pores visible in the SEM images are most abundant in the clay matrix and these seem to follow a power law distribution with a power law exponent of ca. 2.25 independent of the sample location. Furthermore, all common mineral grains show characteristic porosity, pore shape and pore size distribution in 2D and are proposed to be considered as elementary building blocks for Opalinus Clay. Combined these homogeneous elementary building blocks make up the heterogeneous fabric of the different facies of Opalinus Clay. Based on extrapolation of the power law size distribution in the clay matrix below SEM resolution results in a porosity of 10–25% for clay rich layers (60–90% of clay matrix), whereas sand and carbonate layers show an extrapolated porosity of 6–14%. These extrapolated porosities are in agreement with water-loss and physical porosity measurements performed on bulk material of comparable samples.     

Sequence of facies at a Holocene storm-dominated regressive barrier at Praia de Leste,southern Brazil

Along the coast at Praia de Leste, southern Brazil (25° 41’ S latitude), a positive sedimentary budget and a lowering of the sea level following the postglacial maximum has given rise to a progradational strandplain barrier that is 3–5 km wide. Sand quarries that lie 3.5 km from the present-day coastline have provided material from exceptional outcrops of 75% of the sequence of Holocene barrier facies. Five facies associations have been identified, which correspond to the inner shelf, the lower, middle and upper shorefaces, and the foreshore. The architecture of the facies shows a regressive sequence that overlies an erosional surface and downlapping Pleistocene sediments. At Praia de Leste, the facies association has a thickness of 14 m and is deposited between 2 m above and 12 m below mean paleo sea level. The barrier corresponds to a coastal environment that is characterised by medium to low wave energy under the additional influence of episodic storm events. The sequence at the Praia de Leste barrier differs from the sequence of clastic shoreline facies found elsewhere in two main ways. The first difference is the high content of fine sediment and plant debris, released at around the same time as the formation of the barrier from large estuarine systems, and the second is the predominance on the middle and lower shorefaces of swaley cross-stratified sand facies with abundant plant debris. We also describe two further characteristics of the barrier at Praia de Leste. First, the swaley cross-stratified sand represents a component of onshore transport that resulted in the accumulation of sediment transported from the shelf. Second, the beach step has been well preserved, thereby allowing the continuous tracing of seaward-dipping, low-angle cross-stratification to a sigmoidal cross-stratified beach-step sandy facies. Finally, we have herein been able to improve the precision of the sequence of formation of the depth of the facies, by making reference to paleo sea level during the formation of the barrier, rather than to present-day mean sea level.     

Facies architecture of the mixed carbonate/siliciclastic inner continental shelf of west-central Florida: implications for Holocene barrier development

Sediment vibracores and surface samples were collected from the mixed carbonate/siliciclastic inner shelf of west–central Florida in an effort to determine the three-dimensional facies architecture and Holocene geologic development of the coastal barrier-island and adjacent shallow marine environments. The unconsolidated sediment veneer is thin (generally <3 m), with a patchy distribution. Nine facies are identified representing Miocene platform deposits (limestone gravel and blue–green clay facies), Pleistocene restricted marine deposits (lime mud facies), and Holocene back-barrier (organic muddy sand, olive-gray mud, and muddy sand facies) and open marine (well-sorted quartz sand, shelly sand, and black sand facies) deposits. Holocene back-barrier facies are separated from overlying open marine facies by a ravinement surface formed during the late Holocene rise in sea level. Facies associations are naturally divided into four discrete types. The pattern of distribution and ages of facies suggest that barrier islands developed approximately 8200 yr BP and in excess of 20 km seaward of the present coastline in the north, and more recently and nearer to their present position in the south. No barrier-island development prior to approximately 8200 yr BP is indicated. Initiation of barrier-island development is most likely due to a slowing in the Holocene sea-level rise ca. 8000 yr BP, coupled with the intersection of the coast with quartz sand deposits formed during Pleistocene sea-level highstands. This study is an example of a mixed carbonate/siliciclastic shallow marine depositional system that is tightly constrained in both time and sea-level position. It provides a useful analog for the study of other, similar depositional systems in both the modern and ancient rock record.     

Biogenic components and elements in sediments of the Central Baltic and their redistribution

The content and distribution of biogenic components (CaCO₃ and SiO_2am) and elements (C_org, N and P) and some metals (Fe and Mn) were investigated in the marine Holocene sediments of the Baltic Sea including the Curonian and Vistula Lagoons and the Gulf of Riga. The average contents of the studied components and elements are increasing in the order: sand–coarse silt–fine silty mud–mud–pelitic (clayey) mud. The sand and the pelitic mud contain in average (in %): CaCO₃ 1.30 and 8.46; C_org 0.38 and 3.27; SiO_2am 1.32 and 3.11; P 0.05 and 0.10; Fe 1.49 and 4.67; Mn 0.03 and 0.04, respectively. Maps of the areal distributions were compiled and show that areas of elevated values are located mainly in the central parts of lagoons or deep areas. Based on the sediment thickness it is proposed that strong near-bottom currents beneath the halocline level exist in the Eastern-Gotland Deep. The thin mud layer (or the absence of mud) and low sedimentation rates may suggest that non-deposition and resuspension of bulk sediments and associated nutrients occur in many peripheral and central parts of the Eastern-Gotland Deep at depths of more than 90–220 m.     

Gas hydrates in shallow deposits of the Amsterdam mud volcano, Anaximander Mountains, Northeastern Mediterranean Sea

We investigated gas hydrate in situ inventories as well as the composition and principal transport mechanisms of fluids expelled at the Amsterdam mud volcano (AMV; 2,025 m water depth) in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Pressure coring (the only technique preventing hydrates from decomposition during recovery) was used for the quantification of light hydrocarbons in near-surface deposits. The cores (up to 2.5 m in length) were retrieved with an autoclave piston corer, and served for analyses of gas quantities and compositions, and pore-water chemistry. For comparison, gravity cores from sites at the summit and beyond the AMV were analyzed. A prevalence of thermogenic light hydrocarbons was inferred from average C₁/C₂₊ ratios <35 and δ¹³C-CH₄ values of ?50.6‰. Gas venting from the seafloor indicated methane oversaturation, and volumetric gas–sediment ratios of up to 17.0 in pressure cores taken from the center demonstrated hydrate presence at the time of sampling. Relative enrichments in ethane, propane, and iso-butane in gas released from pressure cores, and from an intact hydrate piece compared to venting gas suggest incipient crystallization of hydrate structure II (sII). Nonetheless, the co-existence of sI hydrate can not be excluded from our dataset. Hydrates fill up to 16.7% of pore volume within the sediment interval between the base of the sulfate zone and the maximum sampling depth at the summit. The concave-down shapes of pore-water concentration profiles recorded in the center indicate the influence of upward-directed advection of low-salinity fluids/fluidized mud. Furthermore, the SO ₄ ^2? and Ba²⁺ pore-water profiles in the central part of the AMV demonstrate that sulfate reduction driven by the anaerobic oxidation of methane is complete at depths between 30 cm and 70 cm below seafloor. Our results indicate that methane oversaturation, high hydrostatic pressure, and elevated pore-water activity caused by low salinity promote fixing of considerable proportions of light hydrocarbons in shallow hydrates even at the summit of the AMV, and possibly also of other MVs in the region. Depending on their crystallographic structure, however, hydrates will already decompose and release hydrocarbon masses if sediment temperatures exceed ca. 19.3°C and 21.0°C, respectively. Based on observations from other mud volcanoes, the common occurrence of such temperatures induced by heat flux from below into the immediate subsurface appears likely for the AMV.     

Permeability heterogeneity in bioturbated sediments and implications for waterflooding of tight-oil reservoirs,Cardium Formation,Pembina Field,Alberta, Canada

Bioturbated sediments recording distal expressions of paralic depositional environments are increasingly being exploited for hydrocarbons in the super-giant Pembina Field (Cardium Formation), Alberta, Canada. These strata were previously considered unproductive due to limited vertical and horizontal connectivity between permeable beds. In these “tight oil” plays (0.1–10 mD), pressure decay profile permeametry (micropermeability) data indicate that sand-filled burrows provide vertical permeable pathways between bioturbated and parallel-laminated sandstone beds in the central, northeast and northwest parts of the field. This relationship enables the economic exploitation of hydrocarbons via horizontal drilling and multi-stage hydraulic fracturing. As the exploitation of bioturbated strata progresses in the Pembina Field, additional primary targets are being sought out, and horizontal waterflooding is being considered in areas where horizontal wells exist. Proximal to historical produced conventional targets, reservoir analyses indicate that areas where the bioturbated facies average permeability lies between 0.35 mD and 0.85 mD and sandstone isopach thicknesses are between 0.25 m and 2.5 m should be targeted in east-central Pembina.Micropermeability values enable correlation of bulk permeability from plugs and full-diameter samples to the heterogeneous permeability distributions in intensely bioturbated strata. Bulk and micropermeability data are graphically compared, and permeability distributions are mapped across the field. Using isopach thickness of bioturbated facies, production data, and permeability data, “sweet spots” are identified for placement of effective waterfloods.Production information for recently drilled horizontal wells in the Pembina Field demonstrate that bioturbated muddy sandstones and sandy mudstones in paralic environments can be economically exploited when sand-filled burrows provide connectivity between sand beds. However, well performance within these poorly understood unconventional tight oil plays can better be predicted with an in-depth characterization of their facies and complex permeability heterogeneities. Based on our results, it is clear that micropermeability analysis can be effectively employed to differentiate between economic and sub-economic plays, identify areas with high effective permeability, and high-grade areas for enhanced oil recovery schemes.     

Morphostratigraphy of an ebb-tidal delta system associated with a large spit in the Piedras Estuary mouth (Huelva Coast,Southwestern Spain)

The Piedras Estuary is one of the most significative estuarine systems on the mesotidal Huelva Coast, in the Northwestern portion of the Cadix Gulf. The river mouth is presently an estuarine lagoon partially closed by a large spit constructed from an old barrier island system. This estuary is in an advanced state of infilling and its tidal prism has decreased during the Holocene causing instability and clogging of old inlets and transforming the barrier island chain into a spit. Sedimentation is controlled by the interaction of ebb tide currents and the prevailing SW waves. The main sediment supply is provided by an intensive West-to-East longshore current, transporting sand material from Portuguese cliffs and the Guadiana River. Tidal range is mesotidal (2.0 m) and the mean significant wave height is 0.6 m with an average period of 3.6 s.A boxcore study allowed five depositional facies to be distinguished in the Piedras Estuary mouth: (1) main ebb channels; (2) marginal flood channels; (3) ebb-tidal delta lobes; (4) marginal levees; and (5) curved spits. The recent evolution studied in this area suggests a cyclic evolutionary model for the ebb-tidal delta system. The architectural facies relations shown by the vibracore/boxcore study confirm that the apical growth of the spit occurred over the innermost of these ebb-tidal deltas. Consequently the preserved sequence shows the ebb-tidal delta facies under the spit facies.     

The transgressive infill of an inherited-valley system: The Springhill Formation (lower Cretaceous) in southern Austral Basin, Argentina

The Berriasian-Valanginian Springhill Formation of the Austral Basin of southern South America comprises fluvial to marine deposits. In order to interpret depositional systems and unravel the stratigraphic architecture of this unit in the southern region of the basin (Tierra del Fuego Province, Argentina), 500 m of cores combined with well-log data from 41 wells were studied. Facies associations corresponding to fluvial (A1-A6), estuarine (B1-B5) and open-marine (C1-C4) depositional environments were identified. These facies associations succeed each other vertically across the entire study area (6800 km²) forming a ∼120-m-thick transgressive succession. This unit filled a north-south-oriented valley system, developed in the underlying Jurassic volcanic complex.Lowstand fluvial deposits of the first stage of the valley-system fill occur in downdip segments of the system above a sequence boundary (SB). These fluvial deposits are overlain by coastal-plain and tide-dominated estuarine strata across an initial transgressive surface (ITS). In the northern sector the earliest valley infill is characterized by a transgressive fluvial succession, overlying a merged SB/ITS that is probably time-equivalent of marginal-marine deposits of the southern sector. The fluvial strata in the north are overlain by wave-dominated estuarine deposits. A drastic change to open-marine conditions is marked by a marine flooding surface, with local evidence of marine erosion (FS-RS). Open-marine strata are thin (<10 m) and dominated by lower-shoreface and offshore-transition deposits. They are capped by a younger flooding surface (FS), which represents the onset to offshore conditions across the study area due to a continuous long-term transgression that persisted until the Barremian.Although the interpreted depositional systems and stratigraphic architecture of the Springhill Formation resemble transgressive incised-valley-fill successions, the greater thickness and larger size of the Springhill valleys suggest inherited rift topography rather than valley development during a relative sea-level fall.     

东海Zk23孔的古沙脊沉积环境

根据东海陆架Zk23孔岩心分析资料,进行了沉积地层学、生物地层学和年代地层学分析,确定了该钻孔中段细砂层为埋藏古长江河口沙脊沉积,阐明了该孔附近海区冰消期前后和冰后期的沉积历史。约15kaBP以前,海平面上升较快,沉积了下层的河口—水下三角洲相地层;15～12kaBP的冰消期期间,海平面波动并稳定于60～80m等深线附近,发育了沙脊地貌;12kaBP以来海平面再度快速上升,至7kaBP水位稳定,直至今日,沉积了沙脊上覆的浅海相粉砂质黏土和黏土质粉砂地层。