New,simplified and improved interpretation of the Vaiont landslide mechanics

Both the occurrence and behaviour of the Vaiont landslide have not been satisfactorily explained previously because of difficulties arising from the assumption that the failure surface was ‘chair’ shaped. It is now known that there was no ‘chair’, which means that the 1963 landslide could not have been a reactivated ancient landslide because the residual strength of the clay interbeds would have been insufficient for stability prior to 1963. Furthermore, the moderately translational geometry reduces the influence of reservoir-induced groundwater and hence of submergence. Standard stability analyses now show that prior to 1960, the average shear strength must have significantly exceeded the peak shear strength of the clay interbeds known to have formed the majority of the failure surface. Three-dimensional stability analyses confirm these results and show that at the time of the first significant movements in 1960, the rising reservoir level had a negligible effect on the Factor of Safety. According to these results, the Vaiont landslide was most likely initiated by pore water pressures associated with transient rainfall-induced ‘perched’ groundwater above the clay layers, in combination with a smaller than hitherto assumed effect of reservoir impounding, then developed by brittle crack propagation within the clay beds, thus displaying progressive failure. Further, very heavy rainfall accelerated the process, possibly due to reservoir-induced groundwater impeding drainage of the rainwater, until the limestone beds at the northeast margin failed. With the shear strength suddenly reduced to residual throughout, the entire mass was released and was able to accelerate as observed.     

阳鹿高速公路K52新滑坡变形特征与成因机理分析

阳鹿（阳朔—鹿寨）高速公路K52新滑坡为古滑坡堆积体中局部复活的滑坡,处于急剧变形状态,需进行抢险性处治。复工后对该滑坡进行了详细的地质勘察及变形监测,借助FLAC3D软件对其成因、变形过程及变形机理进行了研究,得到了以下结论:（1）古滑坡堆积体形成于顺层岩质滑坡,堆积体内部发育软-可塑状软弱夹层风化页岩,为新滑坡的主要滑带土;（2）导致新滑坡变形的主要内因为不良地质、微地貌、特殊的岩土结构,主要外因为在中后部堆载、填土改变地表水径流路径、向滑坡排放生活用水及降雨;（3）新滑坡具有三层滑面,失稳前底部滑面为主滑面,失稳阶段中部滑面为主滑面,属前段推移后段牵引型复合式滑坡,具多级、逐级及渐进滑动特点;（4）新滑坡变形进程为:后缘拉张变形-中部剪切蠕变-滑体A、B推移剪出失稳-滑体C前缘临空牵引失稳;（5）新滑坡处治重点应防止顶部、中部及底部三个滑动面继续变形,也应防止古滑面及古滑坡堆积体内部其余风化页岩夹层产生次级滑动。     

中等倾角岩层顺向坡滑坡发育特征及形成机制分析

中等倾角岩层顺向坡,受坡体结构和岩体物理力学性质控制,多存在变形、崩塌、滑坡等工程地质问题,常常会诱发大规模的地质灾害。该类斜坡潜在滑动面不直接出露地表,一般具有变形机制复杂、隐蔽性强和危害大的特点,是滑坡领域关注与研究的重点。拖担水库大坝左岸为一古滑坡,在水库扩建开挖过程中,诱发古滑坡体复活。在分析古滑坡工程地质条件的基础上,结合地质勘察和变形监测结果,研究了其变形特征及形成机制。研究结果表明:①左岸古滑坡具有岩层倾角“上陡下缓”、滑体底部存在反倾坡内的剪切破碎带、滑床岩体产生弧状弯曲的特点;②古滑坡体为一基岩顺层滑坡,滑动模式为“滑移（弯曲）—剪断”型,其变形破坏过程包括三个阶段:弯曲隆起阶段、滑移剪出阶段和扰动变形阶段;③该类斜坡变形破坏后,坡体易沿“上陡下缓”的椅型软弱层面发生二次滑动,滑坡控制关键是对下部变形区的保护。     

基于FDEM的戒台寺古滑体开裂破坏过程数值模拟

戒台寺古滑坡体受多期构造运动控制,边坡岩体中裂缝发育,结构破碎,风化卸荷引起局部滑移严重。2005年,对古滑体Ⅰ级和Ⅱ级平台进行了综合治理,但2013年后期,戒台寺大雄宝殿后墙和后花园地面又发育多组裂缝,且在Ⅲ级平台坡脚处发现大量新断口崩塌坡积物,古滑体有复活征兆。为探索戒台寺古滑坡体从二次稳定到开裂破坏的变形机制和破坏特征,文章首先采用杂交有限元-离散元法（FDEM）建立戒台寺古滑坡体数值模型;然后,将模拟计算结果与现场GPS地表位移监测曲线和破坏特征进行对比分析,结果显示FDEM数值模型较好地再现了戒台寺古滑坡体局部开裂、扩展、贯通、脱离、滑移、碰撞和堆积全过程;最后,判断出戒台寺古滑坡体的危险区域,为古滑坡体深部力学监测点设置提供科学依据。     

Numerical modeling to predict the spread of landslide of schist’s area under climatic event of Ain El Hammam (Algeria)

The several reactivations of the landslide of Ain El Hammam (AEH) after each important weather event compel us to look closely at its triggering factors and predict its mechanisms and its evolution at the longer term. In this sense, the prediction of the slope behavior becomes necessary. This paper presents a numerical model of the AEH landslide using Plaxis® software. This model considers hydraulic effects such as precipitation and pore pressure even in the unsaturated parts. Soil and rock behaviors are described with proper elasto-plastic models named Hardening Soils and Jointed Rocks. The first model takes into account hardening on isotropic and deviatoric mechanism as well as a non-associated flow rule. The second model considers a non-isotropic elasticity with perfect plasticity along with given sliding directions. The hydraulic and mechanical models are coupled with an effective stress concept. To detect unstable areas in the landslide, we developed a Matlab® program to take into account the Hill’s bifurcation criterion, which is based on sign of the second-order work. It has been proved that this criterion allows detecting all failure modes that can appear in rate-independent materials and especially the ones that develop before the plasticity limit criterion. From such computations, we can predict the shape and position of slip surface responsible of the actual ground movement of the slope. To validate the numerical results, analysis of field measurement is included. We use high resolution of electrical tomography to delineate the geometry and position of failure surface and approve our results.     

大渡河新华古滑坡体成因机制及稳定性研究

新华古滑坡体位于拟建水电站坝址线上游12km处,体积巨大,水库设计蓄水高程在滑体剪出口之上,且该区属高烈度区,滑体一旦失稳,可能造成涌浪、甚至堵江和堰塞溃坝,影响严重。目前,古滑体有拉裂缝等变形迹象,属滑移拉裂性质,且古滑坡变形属重力蠕滑性质。稳定性评价结果表明,在天然、暴雨、蓄水及水位骤降等工况下,滑体均处于基本稳定状态。而在考虑地震时,其稳定性迅速降低,滑体有可能整体失稳。     

西康高速公路K129滑坡失稳分析及治理工程动态设计与信息化施工

K129滑坡位于陕西镇安县青铜镇梅花铺以东古滑坡体上,高速公路的修建迫使102省道向山侧改线,挖除古滑坡前缘近6×104m3土体,未采取合理的防护措施。2009年10月,古滑坡出现复活,变形迅速发展,造成高速公路路面隆起、挡墙开裂,呈现整体下滑趋势。滑坡一旦失稳,不仅中断西康高速公路和102省道,而且可能堵塞乾佑河,形成滑坡坝和堰塞湖,对上下游人民的生命财产造成严重威胁。针对该滑坡,以地质分析为基础,深入研究了滑坡的失稳破坏模式。分析发现,粉质黏土混碎块石与千枚岩组成的脆弱地质结构和水岩作用是形成滑坡的控制因素,集中降雨是滑坡发生的主要诱发因素,工程开挖削弱滑坡的锁固段,加速了滑坡的变形。同时,利用多种监测成果和施工反馈信息,反映出滑坡的变形速率特征和空间变形特征,即以后部推移为主,前部牵引为辅的基岩接触面滑坡,并及时采取应急抢险工程,调整设计和施工方案,做到动态设计和信息化施工,确保了滑坡治理工程安全顺利完成。     

Displacement properties of landslide masses at the initiation of failure in quick clay deposits and the effects of meteorological and hydrological factors

This study aimed to identify displacement properties of landslide masses at the initiation of failure and factors that affect the landslides activities in areas where quick clay is found. We set up a research site in a quick clay deposit area in Norway and monitored the displacements of landslide masses and meteorological and hydrological factors for a long period of time using an automatic monitoring system. The system collected data for two landslides that occurred at the site from the start of their movement until their ultimate collapse.

The two landslides that were monitored showed definite secondary and tertiary creep stages before they collapsed. One of the landslides moved from the secondary stage to the tertiary creep stage when another landslide occurred nearby. The tertiary stage of this landslide showed reconstruction of short primary, secondary, and tertiary creep stages. These phenomena suggested that (1) the stress at the end of the landslide mass was released during the nearby landslide, and (2) a new stress distribution was formed in the landslide mass. The critical strain differed for 14 times between the two landslide masses we monitored. The difference was likely attributable to the difference in the contents of quick clay, which shows small critical stress against slope failure, as well as topological factors.

Our analyses of the effects of hydrological and meteorological factors on landslides showed that the precipitation of 3 and 10 days before six slope failures as the final stages of the landslides that had occurred in the research area was no different from the mean precipitation of periods that showed no slope failure, suggesting that precipitation had no direct effects on the collapse of the landslide masses. On the other hand, the traveling velocities of the landslide masses during the secondary creep stage, which was prior to their collapse, were affected by the water content of the soil and precipitation (and the amount of snowmelt water), but was little correlated with the pore-water pressure of the quick clay layer. We also found that the presence of snow cover scarcely affected landslide movements.     

Stability assessment of Jinlong village landslide,Sichuan

The Jinlong village landslide is located in Zitong County, Sichuan and approximately 150 km east of Wenchuan. The landslide has exhibited creep deformation for nearly 30 years. Field investigations indicated that the slope deformation was caused by the combined effects of unfavorable topographic and geological conditions and earthquakes. The sliding surface is along a contact between silty clay and mudstone. The Wenchuan earthquake accelerated the creep, causing bulging of the ground surface. Shear test results of the silty clay near the sliding surface indicated that the residual strength is consistent with the stability state of the landslide. The factors of safety were calculated using the limit equilibrium method (LEM) and the method of fast Lagrangian analysis of continua in two dimensions. The results using the LEM indicate that the stability is clearly affected by seismic shaking, and when the peak ground acceleration is 0.08g, the slope reaches the limit state. The shear failure surface given by numerical simulation develops on the contact between the clay and silty mudstone, which confirmed the assumed sliding surfaces’ location using the LEM.     

Logistic regression model for predicting the failure probability of a landslide dam

Landslides may obstruct river flow and result in landslide dams; they occur in many regions of the world. The formation and disappearance of natural lakes involve a complex earth–surface process. According to the lessons learned from many historical cases, landslide dams usually break down rapidly soon after the formation of the lake. Regarding hazard mitigation, prompt evaluation of the stability of the landslide dam is crucial. Based on a Japanese dataset, this study utilized the logistic regression method and the jack-knife technique to identify the important geomorphic variables, including peak flow (or catchment area), dam height, width and length in sequence, affecting the stability of landslide dams. The resulting high overall prediction power demonstrates the robustness of the proposed logistic regression models. Accordingly, the failure probability of a landslide dam can also be evaluated based on this approach. Ten landslide dams (formed after the 1999 Chi-Chi Earthquake, the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake and 2009 Typhoon Morakot) with complete dam geometry records were adopted as examples of evaluating the failure probability. The stable Tsao-Ling landslide dam, which was induced by the Chi-Chi earthquake, has a failure probability of 27.68% using a model incorporating the catchment area and dam geometry. On the contrary, the Tangjiashan landslide dam, which was artificially breached soon after its formation during the Wenchuan earthquake, has a failure probability as high as 99.54%. Typhoon Morakot induced the Siaolin landslide dam, which was breached within one hour after its formation and has a failure probability of 71.09%. Notably, the failure probability of the earthquake induced cases is reduced if the catchment area in the prediction model is replaced by the peak flow of the dammed stream for these cases. In contrast, the predicted failure probability of the heavy rainfall-induced case increases if the high flow rate of the dammed stream is incorporated into the prediction model. Consequently, it is suggested that the prediction model using the peak flow as causative factor should be used to evaluate the stability of a landslide dam if the peak flow is available. Together with an estimation of the impact of an outburst flood from a landslide-dammed lake, the failure probability of the landslide dam predicted by the proposed logistic regression model could be useful for evaluating the related risk.     

Analysis of the bedding landslide due to the presence of the weak intercalated layer in the limestone

Analysis and research results show that the sliding plane of Jiudingshan landslide is along the weak intercalated layer (clay-filled) in the limestone and the sliding block is separated by the tension crack on the slope crest. The earlier study results show that for the rough, ups and downs structural plane, when i is greater than 2.0, the shear strength of the structural surface is intensely close to the strength of the filling. By the earlier theory, this failure must be through the clay filling. In this study, the failure is back-analyzed and the shear strength of the infilling is tested by the laboratory direct shear tests for which samples were retrieved in the field. The failure cannot be explained by the laboratory results of shear strength parameters. To simulate the field conditions, the real strength parameters of sliding surface are measured by the in situ shear tests for the weak intercalated layer. By the in situ tests, it is shown that the failure initiates along the contacts between the clay infilling and the limestone boundaries, but not through the clay itself. Though the contact surface is the interface of the clay–limestone, the cohesion is not 0 and it is not negligible too.     

金沙江断裂带雄巴巨型古滑坡发育特征与形成机理

雄巴古滑坡位于西藏贡觉金沙江右岸、金沙江活动构造带内,该区地形地貌和地质构造极为复杂,多高山峡谷且河流纵坡降大,岩体结构破碎,发育一系列大型、巨型古滑坡和斜坡变形体。通过遥感解译和现场调查,认为雄巴古滑坡堆积体方量为2.6×10 ⁸~6.0×10 ⁸ m ³,为地质历史上形成的巨型古滑坡。雄巴古滑坡在平面上有滑坡滑源区和滑坡堆积区2个大的区域,其中滑坡堆积区又分为相对稳定区和前缘强变形区。滑坡体上2个深孔钻探资料揭露雄巴古滑坡主要发育2级深层蠕变滑带,其中第一级滑带埋深51 m(ZK1孔)至55 m(ZK2孔),第二级滑带埋深101 m(ZK1孔)至115 m(ZK2孔),坡体内发育的深层承压水对斜坡稳定性影响较大。雄巴古滑坡的形成受地层岩性、断裂构造、降雨和河流侵蚀等作用影响强烈,目前仍处于深层蠕滑中;其深层“锁固段”对滑坡的稳定性起关键控制作用,但在降雨-地下水渗流、河流侵蚀和地震等因素作用下,该古滑坡潜在失稳可能性较大,并有形成堰塞金沙江、溃坝、洪水等灾害链的风险。     

Investigation of the failure mechanism and stabilization of a landslide in weathered tuffite,Giresun, northeastern Turkey

This study investigates the causes and failure mechanism of the Aksu landslide that occurred during the construction of the Giresun–Espiye road between KM: 1 + 030–1 + 170 in northern Turkey and recommends proper stabilization techniques. For the purpose of investigating the causes and mechanism of this slope failure, engineering geological mapping, geotechnical investigation and rock mass characterization were performed. From top to bottom, weathered tuffite, tuffite, flysch, and dacitic tuffite were the major units in the study area. The disturbance of the slope by the excavations performed at the toe of the slope (i.e., due to the foundation excavation for the Tünel restaurant building and for the road cut) led to a “translational slide”. The “translational slide” occurred in completely weathered tuffite due to the disturbance of the stability of the slope by the excavations performed at the toe of the slope, particularly for the foundation excavation of the Tünel restaurant building and for the road cut along the Giresun–Espiye road. The rise in the groundwater level was also another important factor that has contributed to the occurrence of the landslide. After establishing the geometry of the landslide in detail, the shear strength parameters of the failure surface were determined by the back analysis method. Sensitivity analyses were performed and landslide failure mechanisms were modeled to quantify the contributing factors that have caused the formation of the Aksu landslide. The influence of an earthquake was investigated through pseudostatic slope stability analysis. Toe buttressing, ground water drainage, and surface water drainage alternatives were considered for stabilizing the slope.     

Engineering geomorphological characterisation of the Vajont Slide,Italy, and a new interpretation of the chronology and evolution of the landslide

Although the 1963 Vajont Slide in Italy has been extensively studied for over 50 years, its regional geological and geomorphological context has been neglected. In this paper, we use field observations and remote sensing data to elucidate the interaction between endogenic and exogenic processes that brought the north slope of Monte Toc to failure. We present the first detailed pre- and post-failure engineering geomorphology maps of the slide area. The maps delineate two main landslide blocks, several sub-blocks, compressional and extensional zones, and secondary failures in the deposit. The maps provide new insights into the kinematics, dynamics and evolution of the slide. Finally, we discuss the origin of Vajont Gorge and a prehistoric failure that occurred at the same location as the 1963 slide. We propose, as part of a newly developed multi-stage landscape evolution sequence, that the prehistoric failure was a deep-seated gravitational slope deformation (sackung) that initiated during deglaciation and continued to slowly move until the catastrophic failure in 1963. We argue that the gorge was created by these deep-seated slow movements.     

青海隆务西山古滑坡群复活机理及威胁范围预测

青海省黄南藏族自治州同仁市位于青藏高缘东北隅,地处西秦岭造山带与北祁连造山带的连接部位。自中新世以来,研究区经历数次间断性抬升和夷平作用,河谷强烈侵蚀下切。在内外动力耦合作用下,隆务河两岸发育多处大型-特大型古滑坡。近年来,受全球气候变暖影响,本区内5处古滑坡存在明显变形迹象,已有裂缝明显扩展,出现多处新增裂缝,已建防治工程局部破坏。本文以同仁市隆务河左岸的隆务西山古滑坡群作为研究对象,利用野外调查、钻探、室内试验及数值模拟等手段对西山古滑坡群的发育分布、变形特征、复活机理及运动特征进行分析研究。结果表明：(1)新构造运动的强烈抬升和隆务河河谷的强烈下切是西山古滑坡群形成的主控因素;(2)野外调查发现,西山古滑坡群近期变形主要集中分布于滑坡群中部的Ⅴ^#、Ⅶ^#滑坡和北侧Ⅸ^#～Ⅻ^#滑坡,坡表陡坎及拉张裂缝发育,局部变形强烈;(3)降雨为西山滑坡群的发生复活的控制性因素,其变形破坏模式为滑移-拉裂;(4)潜在滑坡失稳运动过程数值模拟结果显示,滑坡运移距离多在50～75 m,堆积区平均厚度在12～18 m,...     

Analysis of the Maierato landslide (Calabria,Southern Italy)

On 15 February 2010, a landslide of great dimensions occurred at Maierato (Calabria, Southern Italy) after a long rainy period. Although the zone was continuously affected by ground movements especially during the wet seasons, no monitoring system was installed before the occurrence of the landslide. However, many photos and two videos were taken during the failure process of the slope. In the present study, the available images are used to reconstruct the kinematics of the landslide. In addition, a finite element analysis is performed to define the main factors of triggering and to interpret the failure mechanism of the slope. This analysis is also based on the data from a site investigation carried out after the landslide to characterise the involved soils from a geotechnical viewpoint. The analysis also accounts for the strain-softening behaviour of some soils. The results have shown that the Maierato landslide was the reactivation of a pre-existing landslide body, which was caused by a significant increase in groundwater level.     

Landslide dam failure and flood hydraulics. Part I: experimental investigation

Landslide dam failure can trigger catastrophic flooding in the downstream. However, field observation of such flooding is rarely available, while laboratory experimental studies are sparse. The mechanism of landslide dam failure and the flood has so far remained insufficiently understood. Here, we present an experimental investigation of landslide dam failure and the flood. A total of 28 runs of experiments are carried out in a flume of 80 m × 1.2 m × 0.8 m, with differing inflow discharge, dam composition, dam geometry, and initial breach dimension. An array of twelve automatic water-level probes is deployed to measure the stage hydrographs along the flume, and the video recording of the dam failure processes facilitates an estimation of the widening of initial breach. Under the present experimental conditions with dams composed of homogeneous materials, landslide dam failure is primarily caused by erosion of overtopping flow, and lateral mass collapse is also considerable during the cause of breach widening. Cohesive clay may act to mitigate the seepage through the dam and thus its subsidence and appreciably modulate the dam failure process and the flood. However, the impacts of clay may be readily overwhelmed by a large inflow discharge and initial breach. Gravels in the dam may appreciably depress the rate of the dam failure process and thus modify the flood. The present work provides new experimental data set for testing mathematical models of the flood flow due to landslide dam failure.     

滑坡活动强度与几何要素之关系探讨

在滑坡发展过程中，滑坡的稳定性必然在其几何形态上有一定的反映。本文通过对滑坡展布面积、厚度、体积、长宽比、高度（即前后缘高差）及平均坡度等几何要素与滑坡稳定性的关系进行统计分析，发现滑坡活动强度与滑坡规模、平面展布形态及其空间展布状态有如下统计规律，并对此进行了初步探讨：（1）在滑坡规模方面，较小规模滑坡的体积越小，较大规模滑坡的体积越大，滑坡稳定性越差。（2）从滑坡形态方面来看，滑坡形态从横展型→等轴型→纵展型变化，滑坡稳定性增大。（3）对于滑坡的空间展布状态，高度减小与平均坡度增大，滑坡稳定性变差。     

Numerical modeling of the June 24, 2015, Hongyanzi landslide generated impulse waves in Three Gorges Reservoir,China

Subaerial landslides falling into confined water bodies often generate impulsive waves. Damaging landslide tsunamis in Three Gorges Reservoir, China, have struck several times in the last 15 years. On June 24, 2015, a 23?×?10⁴ m³ slope failure occurred on the east bank of the Daning River opposite Wushan Town. The sliding mass intruded into the Three Gorges Reservoir and initiated a reservoir tsunami that resulted in two deaths and significant damage to shipping facilities. A post-event survey revealed the landslide geometry and wave run-up distribution, while an eyewitness video captured most of the landslide motion. Employing these firm constraints, we applied the Tsunami Squares method to simulate the 2015 Hongyanzi landslide and tsunami. The simulation revealed that the landslide experienced a progressive failure in the first few seconds and impacted the water with a maximum velocity of ~?16 m/s. The initial wave propagated to the opposite shore in an arch shape, and the water surface reached a maximum amplitude of ~?11 m near the landslide. Wave amplitude-time curves at four points on the river cross section show that the initial wave reached Wushan town in about 50 s with an average wave velocity of ~?30 m/s. The maximum wave run-ups on the shoreline opposite the landslide are around 6 m and attenuate to less than 1 m beyond 2-km distance. The landslide simulation matches the observed geological profile and the eyewitness video, and the numerical results coincide with the observed wave run-up heights. Nearly 80% of landslide energy is lost due to frictional resistances, but the remaining fraction imparted to the tsunami carried catastrophic consequences to a large region. The numerical results emphasize the efficiency and accuracy of Tsunami Squares method for a “Quick Look” simulation of a potential landslide.