Speleoseismology: A critical perspective

Speleoseismology is the investigation of earthquake records in caves. Traces can be seen in broken speleothems, growth anomalies in speleothems, cave sediment deformation structures, displacements along fractures and bedding plane slip, incasion (rock fall) and co-seismic fault displacements. Where earthquake origins can be proven, these traces constitute important archives of local and even regional earthquake activity. However, other processes that can generate the same or very similar deformation features have to be excluded before cave damage can be interpreted as earthquake induced. Most sensitive and therefore most valuable for the tracing of strong earthquake shocks in caves are long and slender speleothems, such as soda straws, and deposits of well-bedded, water-saturated silty sand infillings, particularly in caves close to the earth's surface. Less easily proven is a co-seismic origin of an incasion and other forms of cave damage. The loads and creep movements of sediment and ice fillings in caves can cause severe damage to speleothems which have been frequently misinterpreted as evidence of earthquakes. For the dating of events in geological archives, it is important to demonstrate that such events happened at approximately the same time, i.e. within the error bars of the dating methods. A robust earthquake explanation for cave damage can only be achieved by the adoption of appropriate methods of direct dating of deformation events in cave archives combined with correlation of events in other geological archives outside caves, such as the deformation of lake and flood-plain deposits, locations of rock falls and active fault displacements.     

Spatio-temporal changes of marine macrobenthic community in sub-tropical waters upon recovery from eutrophication. II. Life-history traits and feeding guilds of polychaete community

A two-year study was conducted in the vicinity of a harbour in sub-tropical Hong Kong, to examine the progress of recovery of macrobenthic community, based on analyses of both life-history traits and trophic guilds of polychaetes, upon cessation of organic pollution caused by sewage discharge. Seventy seven out of 83 species collected were classified under four ecological groups based on the life-history traits and sensitivity to organic gradients. The mean ATZI marine biotic index (AMBI) derived from these ecological groups showed spatial difference among the five sampling locations. In particular, the presence of different percentages of polychaete species from Groups III (unbalanced community) and IV (polluted community) suggested the presence of pollution stress in certain degree at all sampling locations. However, no significant temporal changes were noted over the study period. From all polychaete species identified, they were classified into 13 feeding guilds. The mean diversity of these feeding guilds at most of the sampling locations was significantly higher than that at one of the inside-harbour locations. The composition of feeding guilds was also significantly different spatially. At one of the inside-harbour locations, the dominant feeding guilds were motile/discretely motile surface deposit feeders with tentaculates or unarmed pharynx, and motile omnivores with jawed pharynx in the first year of study, but were replaced by motile, jawed carnivores in the second year of study. The increased proportion of carnivores over the study period can be seen as a sign of recovery in the community structure since abundance of predators is commonly higher in habitats with better environmental quality. The implications of using life-history traits and feeding guild analyses for benthic community are discussed.     

The impact of drilling fluid and well cuttings on polychaete feeding guilds from the US northeastern continental shelf

The effect of recent drilling operations (fluid and well cuttings) on polychaete feeding guilds from the continental shelf off Atlantic City, New Jersey, was examined. Although there were some adverse effects on macrobenthos from 2160 metric tons of cuttings and mud solids discharged into the marine environment, the composition of polychaete feeding guilds remained essentially unchanged. This key trophic relationship between polychaetes and the changing environment due to the drilling operation was apparently uninterrupted. This relationship remains to be examined in other natural and perturbed habitats.     

窑洞外形特征对结构抗震性能影响研究

调查发现山西北部农村地区农居窑洞多是独立式土坯窑洞,结构主要受力体系是土坯砌体砌筑拱结构,其建造无统一标准,外形样式存在差异。由于拱结构的内力分布对外形尺寸变化比较敏感,为研究窑洞外形特征对结构抗震性能影响,建立相应的有限元模型进行计算分析,对比不同外形特征窑洞在地震作用下的损伤情况,并结合历史震害,指出窑洞结构的薄弱位置。研究结果表明覆土较厚的窑洞容易损伤,连拱孔数较多窑洞的两侧位置更容易发生破坏,拱的曲线形状对结构抗震性能有一定影响,合理拱曲线窑洞的抗震性能优于一般形状窑洞。     

Contamination of marine biogenic habitats and effects upon associated epifauna

Habitat-forming organisms are frequently used as biomonitors in marine environments due to a widespread ability to accumulate toxic contaminants. Few studies, however, have considered the consequences of these accumulated contaminants on the abundant and diverse fauna associated with these habitats. In this review, we summarize research which has investigated the contamination of biogenic habitats (including seagrasses, macroalgae, ascidians, sponges and bivalve reefs) and the impact of this contamination on the habitat use, feeding behaviour and survival of associated epifauna. In many cases, ecological impacts upon epifauna are not simply predicted by levels of contamination in their habitat, but are determined by the foraging, feeding and reproductive behaviours of the inhabiting organisms. Thus, a thorough understanding of these ecological processes is essential in order to understand the effects of contaminants upon epifaunal communities. The scope of biomonitoring studies which assess the contamination of biogenic habitats should be expanded to include an assessment of potential effects upon associated epifauna. When combined with manipulative field experiments such an approach would greatly assist in our understanding of indirect effects of contaminants in these important benthic habitats.     

Speleothems in a north Cuban cave register sea‐level changes and Pleistocene uplift rates

A flight of marine terraces along the Cuban coast records Quaternary sea‐level highstands and a general slowly uplifting trend during the Pleistocene. U/Th dating of these limestone terraces is difficult because fossil reef corals have been affected by open system conditions. Terrace ages are thus often based on geological and geomorphological observations. In contrast, the minimum age of the terraces can be constrained by dating speleothems from coastal mixing (flank margin) caves formed during past sea‐level highstands and carving the marine limestones. Speleothems in Santa Catalina Cave have ages >360 ka and show various cycles of subaerial–subaqueous corrosion and speleothem growth. This suggests that the cave was carved during the MIS 11 sea‐level highstand or earlier. Some stalagmites grew during MIS 11 through MIS 8 and were submerged twice, once at the end of MIS 11 and then during MIS 9. Phreatic overgrowths (POS) covering the speleothems suggest anchialine conditions in the cave during MIS 5e. Their altitude at 16 m above present sea level indicates a late Pleistocene uplift rate of <0.1 mm/ka, but modelling also shows uplift to have been insignificant over a long timespan during the middle Pleistocene since the cave was carved. Our study shows that some flank margin caves in the region of Matanzas are older than commonly believed (i.e. MIS 11 rather than MIS 5). These caves not only can be preserved but are good markers of interglacial sea‐level highstands, more reliable than marine abrasion surfaces. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Trophic guilds of EPT (Ephemeroptera,Plecoptera, and Trichoptera) in three basins of the Brazilian Savanna

Insects of the orders Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera (EPT) are prominent among stream biota and are associated with many ecological processes in these environments, meaning that a proper definition of their habits is essential. We studied EPT from three watersheds in Brazil (Paraguai, Paraná, and São Francisco) in order to (i) determine the trophic guilds of EPT genera sampled; (ii) determine whether trophic guilds reflect EPT phylogenetic component (taxonomic distance); (iii) compare trophic guild composition among watersheds; and (iv) verify the effect of environmental components in trophic guild composition. Eight trophic guilds were determined based on gut content analysis: detritivores, fine-detritivores, fine-detritivores/algivores, coarse-detritivores, coarse-detritivore/algivores, periphytivores, carnivores, and omnivores. Caddisflies presented the most variable diet and many genera belonged to different trophic guilds in different basins. Overall trophic guild composition did not reflect the taxonomic distance among taxa and it did not differ among the three basins. Instead, EPT guilds were related to local environmental variables, evidencing that their diet probably varies according to local resource availability, highlighting the importance of empirical assessments of diet for ecological studies.     

广西岩溶洞穴沉积物与地震记录初探

广西是西南地区的一个岩溶大省,其岩溶面积占土地面积的42%.广西岩溶洞穴十分发育,至少有6万个洞穴.洞穴景观资源丰富,为广两的旅游创造了大量的财富.岩溶洞穴沉积物不仅具有旅游开发价值,而且蕴含了丰富的古气候环境信息,同时,也是地震信息的存储器,是研究地震遗迹的良好材料.地震活动不仅导致岩溶洞穴及洞穴沉积物发生破裂、坍塌...     

基于3D-FEM的洞穴型地层双侧向测井数值模拟及响应特征研究

洞穴型碳酸盐岩储层非均质性强、电测井响应复杂、测井识别和表征难度大,利用数值模拟方法明确该类储层的电测井响应特征,可为洞穴识别与评价提供理论依据.本文基于三维有限元素法(3D-FEM),引入边界局部加密技术,实现对复杂球形洞穴的精细刻画与响应精确计算;对比分析井眼钻穿型洞穴和井旁洞穴的双侧向测井响应特征和敏感性,进而考察双侧向测井对两者敏感范围的差异.结果表明:洞穴的存在导致双侧向测井响应明显降低,受洞穴边界及仪器探测深度等影响,井眼钻穿型洞穴双侧向测井曲线复杂,而井旁洞穴曲线呈"抛物线"型;双侧向测井对井眼钻穿型洞穴的敏感性远大于对井旁洞穴的敏感性,深侧向和浅侧向测井最大可对洞穴边界距井壁0.5 m和0.3 m的井旁洞穴敏感.     

Approaches to environmental restoration of a polluted harbour with submerged archaeology: the Alexandria case study

Many invaluable underwater buildings of archaeological interest in Alexandria were discovered in 1996 at different sites in the Eastern Harbour of Alexandria. There is a belief that the best way to protect these invaluable heritages is to transfer them to an underwater park or museum. Obviously, the execution of such a project depends essentially upon the water quality (including water transparency) improving in the future. The harbour is presently polluted by discharge of wastewater effluents from different sources. It has recently been decided to restore this important coastal area through: (1) stopping the direct discharge of wastewater effluents into this semi-enclosed harbour in 1993 and (2) gradually reducing the discharge of the municipal wastewater through marine outfalls at two sites lying at the outer sides of the harbour. Zero discharge is expected to be effective by the end of the year 2001. The present work, therefore, is a follow up of the study of water quality in the harbour after 1993: in 1996 and 1999-2000. The water quality of an open sea reference station was also studied for comparison. The results reveal occurrence of an improvement of the environmental conditions in the harbour. The water has turned from being eutrophic to mesotrophic. The harbour is expected to become meso/oligotrophic as soon as the complete cessation of the discharge from the two outside sources is attained.     

高台测震新旧台基记录地震及震相特征差异性对比分析

使用相同带宽、同类型地震计BBVS-120观测记录数据,对高台地震台新旧观测山洞的台基环境噪声、地震监测能力及震相记录特征进行对比分析,结果表明,高台测震新山洞的地震监测水平优于旧山洞,部分地区新山洞对于核面反射波的记录更加清晰。     

Changes in the marine environment of Port Kembla Harbour, NSW, Australia, 1975-1995: a review

Data on water quality, sediment quality and aquatic organisms in Port Kembla Harbour from the 1970s to the 1990s are reviewed. In the 1970s, the marine environment of Port Kembla Harbour was in poor condition as a result of pollution from heavy industries. Elevated concentrations of pollutants were found in water, sediment and fish in the harbour; aquatic biodiversity was limited and many fish kills were reported. With the implementation of pollution reduction programs (required by legislation changes) by the industries surrounding the harbour since the 1970s, pollution in the harbour has been reduced dramatically, and the quality of the marine environment of the harbour has noticeably improved. Large reductions in the concentrations of certain toxic wastes and heavy metals in water have occurred. Marine life has returned to the whole harbour (parts were described in 1977 as abiotic). Contaminants in fish have decreased. Despite this achievement, however, there is still considerable room for improvement in the quality of the marine environment of the harbour.     

Reconstructing fluvial incision rates based on palaeo-water tables in chalk karst networks along the Seine valley (Normandy,France)

Quantifying rates of river incision and continental uplift over Quaternary timescales offer the potential for modelling landscape change due to tectonic and climatic forcing. In many areas, river terraces form datable archives that help constrain the timing and rate of valley incision. However, old river terraces, with high-level deposits, are prone to weathering and often lack datable material. Where valleys are incised through karst areas, caves and sediments can be used to reconstruct the landscape evolution because they can record the elevation of palaeo-water tables and contain preserved datable material. In Normandy (N. France), the Seine River is entrenched into an extensive karstic chalk plateau. Previous estimates of valley incision were hampered by the lack of preserved datable fluvial terraces. A stack of abandoned phreatic cave passages preserved in the sides of the Seine valley can be used to reconstruct the landscape evolution of the region. Combining geomorphological observations, palaeomagnetic and U/Th dating of speleothem and sediments in eight caves along the Lower Seine valley, we have constructed a new age model for cave development and valley incision. Six identified cave levels up to ∼100 m a.s.l. were formed during the last ~1 Ma, coeval with the incision of the Seine River. Passage morphologies indicate that the caves formed in a shallow phreatic/epiphreatic setting, modified by sediment influxes. The valley's maximum age is constrained by the occurrence of late Pliocene marine sand. Palaeomagnetic dating of cave infills indicates that the highest-level caves were being infilled prior to 1.1 Ma. The evidence from the studied caves, complemented by fluvial terrace sequences, indicates that rapid river incision occurred during marine isotope stage (MIS) 28 to 20 (0.8–1 Ma), with maximal rates of ~0.30 m ka⁻¹, dropping to ~0.08 m ka⁻¹ between MIS 20–11 (0.8–0.4 Ma) and 0.05 m ka⁻¹ from MIS 5 to the present time. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Arsenic metabolism in a marine food chain

Radioarsenic was used to identify various chemical forms of arsenic, accumulated as arsenate from food or water, in a three-step food chain consisting of an autotroph, a grazer and a carnivore. Differential extraction procedures carried out on tissues from these organisms suggest that organic forms of arsenic in marine food webs are derived from an in vivo synthesis by primary producers and are efficiently transferred along a marine food chain. The muscle tissue of the carnivorous shrimp which represented the highest trophic level in this food chain could not itself form organic arsenic; in this case arsenate taken up from water was converted largely to arsenite.     

Modeling the impacts of bottom trawling and the subsequent recovery rates of sponges and corals in the Aleutian Islands, Alaska

The abundance of some marine fish species are correlated to the abundance of habitat-forming benthic organisms such as sponges and corals. A concern for fisheries management agencies is the recovery of these benthic invertebrates from removal or mortality from bottom trawling and other commercial fisheries activities. Using a logistic model, observations of available substrate and data from bottom trawl surveys of the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, we estimated recovery rates of sponges and corals following removal. The model predicted the observed sponge and coral catch in bottom trawl surveys relatively accurately (R²=0.38 and 0.46). For sponges, the results show that intrinsic growth rates were slow (r=0.107 yr⁻¹). Results show that intrinsic growth rates of corals were also slow (r=0.062 yr⁻¹). The best models for corals and sponges were models that did not include the impacts of commercial fishing removals. Subsequent recovery times for both taxa were also predicted to be slow. Mortality of 67% of the initial sponge biomass would recover to 80% of the original biomass after 20 years, while mortality of 67% of the coral biomass would recover to 80% of the original biomass after 34 years. The modeled recovery times were consistent with previous studies in estimating that recovery times were of the order of decades, however improved data from directed studies would no doubt improve parameter estimates and reduce the uncertainty in the model results. Given their role as a major ecosystem component and potential habitat for marine fish, damage and removal of sponges and corals must be considered when estimating the impacts of commercial bottom trawling on the seafloor.     

Water and air dynamics within a deep vadose zone of a karst massif: Observations from the Lukina jama–Trojama cave system (−1,431 m) in Dinaric karst (Croatia)

Extreme heterogeneity of karst systems makes them very challenging to study. Various processes within the system affect its global response, usually measured at karst springs. Research conducted in caves provides a unique opportunity for in situ analysis of separate processes in karst underground. The aim of the present study was to research the water and air dynamics within a deep karst system. Air and water basic physical parameters across the Lukina jama–Trojama cave system (?1,431 m) were continuously monitored during a 1‐year period. Recorded hydrograph of the siphon lake at the bottom of the cave was used to interpret the characteristics of an unexplored phreatic/epiphreatic conduit network. Water origin in the siphon was determined based on temperature and electrical conductivity. Air temperature and humidity monitoring revealed a strong inflow of air of sub‐zero temperature into the upper portion of the cave during winter. Cave passage morphology was interpreted as the main determinant of air dynamics, which caused ice to accumulate extensively in the upper portions of the cave and caused the temperature on the top of the homothermic zone to be significantly below the mean outside temperature. Air dynamics also lowered the temperature of water flowing through the cave vadose zone and feeding the phreatic zone of the massif. The pronounced temperature difference between the phreatic zone and the top of the homothermic zone probably contributed to the thermal gradient observed in the cave, which is steeper than in ice‐free caves in the area. Our results enabled the development of a conceptual model that describes coupling between air and water dynamics in the cave system and its surroundings.     

Modelling distribution of marine benthos from hydroacoustics and underwater video

Broad-scale mapping of marine benthos is required for marine resource management and conservation. This study combines textural derivatives based on bathymetry from multibeam hydroacoustics with underwater video observations to model and map sessile biota between 10- and 60-m water depth over 35 km² in Point Addis Marine National Park (MNP), Vic., Australia. Classification tree models and maps were developed for macroalgae (all types, mixed red algae, Ecklonia, and rhodoliths) and sessile invertebrates (all types, sponges, and ascidians). Model accuracy was tested on 25% of the video observation dataset reserved from modelling. Models fit well for most macroalgae categories (correct classification rates of 67–84%), but are not as good for sessile invertebrate classes (correct classification rates of 57–62%). The poor fit of the sessile invertebrate models may be the combined result of grouping organisms with different environmental requirements and the effect of false absences recorded during video interpretation due to poor image quality. Probability maps, binary single-class maps, and multi-class maps supply spatially explicit, detailed information on the distribution of sessile benthic biota within the MNP and provide information at a landscape-scale for ecological investigations and marine management.     

Kinetic processes and stable isotopes in cave dripwaters as indicators of winter severity

We examine how the stable isotope composition of meteoric water is transmitted through soil and epikarst to dripwaters in a cave in western Romania. δ²H and δ¹⁸O in precipitation at this site are influenced by temperature and moisture sources (Atlantic and Mediterranean), with lower δ¹⁸O in winter and higher in summer. The stable isotope composition of cave dripwaters mimics this seasonal pattern of low and high δ¹⁸O, but the onset and end of freezing conditions in the winter season are marked by sharp transitions in the isotopic signature of cave dripwaters of approximately 1 ‰. We interpret these shifts as the result of kinetic isotopic fractionation during the transition phase from water to ice at the onset of freezing conditions and the input of meltwater to the cave at the beginning of the spring season. This process is captured in dripwaters and therefore speleothems from Ur?ilor Cave, which grew under such dripping points, may have the potential to record past changes in the severity of winters. Similar isotopic changes in dripwaters driven by freeze–thaw processes can affect other caves in areas with winter snow cover, and cave monitoring during such changes is essential in linking the isotopic variability in dripwaters and speleothems to surface climate.     

The flank margin model for dissolution cave development in carbonate platforms

The Bahama Islands contain many abandoned dissolution caves at elevations between two and seven metres above current sea level. The development of dissolution caves in tropical carbonate islands is dependent on the position and nature of the freshwater lens. Lens position is controlled by sea level, which in stable carbonate platforms like the Bahamas is a function of glacioeustatic sea level still stands. Caves in the Bahamas that are currently subaerial must have developed during past higher sea levels. During the Late Quaternary, sea levels higher than present have been relatively short-lived, and that limits the amount of time that a freshwater lens could be situated at the elevation required for the cave formation. The Bahama Islands are low-lying landforms where only aeolian ridges extend to elevations higher than six metres above current sea level. Past high sea level events greatly reduced the exposed land area of the Bahama Islands, thus also limiting both the catchment for and size of freshwater lenses. Caves must be younger than the rock in which they are developed; most subaerial Bahamian caves are found in limestones that are less than 150000 years old. Development of large dissolution caves under these limitations of time and lens size requires a powerful dissolutional mechanism. The mixing of discharging freshwater with tide-pulsed incoming marine water under the flanks of emergent dune ridges may have produced the conditions necessary. Bahamian caves formed by this process are phreatic chambers with complex interconnections and blind tubes. Their presence demonstrates that significant dissolution can occur rapidly as a result of the mixing of fresh and marine waters beneath small carbonate islands.