Seismotectonics of strike–slip earthquakes within the deep crust of southern Italy: Geometry, kinematics, stress field and crustal rheology of the Potenza 1990–1991 seismic sequences (Mmax 5.7)

We present a revision and a seismotectonic interpretation of deep crust strike–slip earthquake sequences that occurred in 1990–1991 in the Southern Apennines (Potenza area). The revision is motivated by: i) the striking similarity to a seismic sequence that occurred in 2002  140 km NNW, in an analogous tectonic context (Molise area), suggesting a common seismotectonic environment of regional importance; ii) the close proximity of such deep strike–slip seismicity with shallow extensional seismicity (Apennine area); and iii) the lack of knowledge about the mechanical properties of the crust that might justify the observed crustal seismicity. A comparison between the revised 1990–1991 earthquakes and the 2002 earthquakes, as well as the integration of seismological data with a rheological analysis offer new constraints on the regional seismotectonic context of crustal seismicity in the Southern Apennines. The seismological revision consists of a relocation of the aftershock sequences based on newly constrained velocity models. New focal mechanisms of the aftershocks are computed and the active state of stress is constrained via the use of a stress inversion technique. The relationships among the observed seismicity, the crustal structure of the Southern Apennines, and the rheological layering are analysed along a crustal section crossing southern Italy, by computing geotherms and two-mechanism (brittle frictional vs. ductile plastic strength) rheological profiles. The 1990–1991 seismicity is concentrated in a well-defined depth range (mostly between 15 and 23 km depths). This depth range corresponds to the upper pat of the middle crust underlying the Apulian sedimentary cover, in the footwall of the easternmost Apennine thrust system. The 3D distribution of the aftershocks, the fault kinematics, and the stress inversion indicate the activation of a right-lateral strike–slip fault striking N100°E under a stress field characterized by a sub-horizontal N142°-trending σ1 and a sub-horizontal N232°-trending σ3, very similar to the known stress field of the Gargano seismic zone in the Apulian foreland. The apparent anomalous depths of the earthquakes (> 15 km) and the confinement within a relatively narrow depth range are explained by the crustal rheology, which consists of a strong brittle layer at mid crustal depths sandwiched between two plastic horizons. This articulated rheological stratification is typical of the central part of the Southern Apennine crust, where the Apulian crust is overthrusted by Apennine units. Both the Potenza 1990–1991 and the Molise 2002 seismic sequences can be interpreted to be due to crustal E–W fault zones within the Apulian crust inherited from previous tectonic phases and overthrusted by Apennine units during the Late Pliocene–Middle Pleistocene. The present strike–slip tectonic regime reactivated these fault zones and caused them to move with an uneven mechanical behaviour; brittle seismogenic faulting is confined to the strong brittle part of the middle crust. This strong brittle layer might also act as a stress guide able to laterally transmit the deviatoric stresses responsible for the strike–slip regime in the Apulian crust and may explain the close proximity (nearly overlapping) of the strike–slip and normal faulting regimes in the Southern Apennines. From a methodological point of view, it seems that rather simple two-mechanism rheological profiles, though affected by uncertainties, are still a useful tool for estimating the rheological properties and likely seismogenic behaviour of the crust.     

干热岩控热构造系统厘定与类型划分

为了研究干热岩成因机理,综合分析了干热岩形成背景、控热构造系统及尺度.地球中的干热岩具有特殊的形成构造背景,控热构造对干热岩热能的传输与聚敛具有很重要的作用,导致岩石圈不同热结构和热异常.控热构造可划分为生热、导热、储热和释热构造.生热构造包括地幔软流圈底辟,具有大量高放射性元素的岩浆房,活动性的深大断裂等;中、下地壳脆韧性转换带,活动的韧性剪切带是导热构造;中、下地壳的低阻高导体,韧性剪切流变层既是导热层,也是储热构造;火山、地震、浅表层次的活动断裂等为释热构造;控热构造的类型受到构造尺度和构造背景的限定.由于地壳中控热构造分布状态及发育特征差异较大,从而导致干热岩等地热能资源在地壳中的埋深、规模、热量以及分布状态等也有较大差异.      

南北地震带南段震源空间分布特征及其构造意义

大陆浅源地震震源空间分布可以看作是一种地球物理特征,大量震源的空间位置数据可用来刻划大陆地壳结构。通过研究南北地震带南段震源的空间分布特征,发现研究区震源深度分布在横向上的疏密变化与地质构造特征相对应。剖面震源分布等密度图显示,中、下地壳不同深度广泛分布着多震层。多震层的分布与地壳低速、低阻层具有相关性,多震层一般位于低速、低阻层的上方。中地壳层次的低速、低阻层很可能是壳内滑脱层,是韧性下地壳与脆性上地壳发生拆离解耦的构造层次;下地壳低速、低阻层是部分熔融、含流体的韧性流变层;壳内多震层的构造属性应是上地壳硬的脆性层,容易发生突然破裂,产生地震。低速、低阻层是大陆板块内部上地壳脆性层构造过程的主控因素,包括对大陆内部浅源地震的控制;因此,在低速、低阻层之上往往形成多震层,越是活动性强的低速、低阻层,其上多震层震源密度越高。南北地震带南段不同层圈和块体之间的差异运动控制了其地壳层次的构造活动,包括大量地震的发生,其中,下地壳流层与上地壳脆性层的差异运动在中地壳层次发生剪切拆离是最重要的因素。     

Thermal and mechanical structure of the central Iberian Peninsula lithosphere

The central Iberian Peninsula (Spain) is made up of three main tectonic units: a mountain range, the Spanish Central System and two Tertiary basins (those of the rivers Duero and Tajo). These units are the result of widespread foreland deformation of the Iberian plate interior in response to Alpine convergence of European and African plates. The present study was designed to investigate thermal structure and rheological stratification in this region of central Spain. Surface heat flow has been described to range from 80 to 60 mW m⁻². Highest surface heat flow values correspond to the Central System and northern part of the Tajo Basin. The relationship between elevation and thermal state was used to construct a one-dimensional thermal model. Mantle heat flow drops from 34 mW m⁻² (Duero Basin) to 27 mW m⁻² (Tajo Basin), and increases with diminishing surface heat flow. Strength predictions made by extrapolating experimental data indicate varying rheological stratification throughout the area. In general, in compression, ductile fields predominate in the middle and lower crusts and lithospheric mantle. Brittle behaviour is restricted to the first 8 km of the upper crust and to a thin layer at the top of the middle crust. In tension, brittle layers are slightly more extended, while the lower crust and lithospheric mantle remain ductile in the case of a wet peridotite composition. Discontinuities in brittle and ductile layer thickness determine lateral rheological anisotropy. Tectonic units roughly correspond to rheological domains. Brittle layers reach their maximum thickness beneath the Duero Basin and are of least thickness under the Tajo Basin, especially its northern area. Estimated total lithospheric strength shows a range from 2.5×10¹² to 8×10¹² N m⁻¹ in compression, and from 1.3×10¹² to 1.6×10¹² N m⁻¹ in tension. Highest values were estimated for the Duero Basin.Depth versus frequency of earthquakes correlates well with strength predictions. Earthquake foci concentrate mainly in the upper crust, showing a peak close to maximum strength depth. Most earthquakes occur in the southern margin of the Central System and southeast Tajo Basin. Seismicity is related to major faults, some bounding rheological domains. The Duero Basin is a relative quiescence zone characterised by higher total lithospheric strength than the remaining units.     

大陆地震构造系统: 以青藏高原及邻区为例

青藏高原及邻区三角形发震构造域是全球大陆最显著的地震多发区.脆性活动断层及其弹性回跳模式无法合理解释该区深度集中分布在10~40 km的点状震源.针对发震构造和地震机理不明确这一重大科学问题, 以大陆动力学和地球系统动力学新思想为指导, 对青藏高原及邻区发震构造系统进行域、层、带、点相关研究, 阐明大陆地震构造系统的结构型式, 认为下地壳固态流变及其韧性剪切带是提供地震能量的孕震构造, 中地壳韧-脆性剪切带是累积地震能量的发震构造, 上地壳脆性断裂是释放地震能量的释震构造.在研究青藏高原及邻区地震构造系统及其形成背景的基础上, 进一步论证了大陆地震热流体撞击的形成机理: 地幔墙导致大洋中脊之下的软流圈热流物质层流到大陆特定部位汇聚加厚并底辟上升, 造成大陆下地壳部分熔融和固态流变, 并改变莫霍面的产状, 固态流变物质侧向非均匀流动, 形成大陆盆山体系, 流动的韧性下地壳与脆性上地壳之间具有韧-脆性剪切滑脱性质的中地壳不断积累由下地壳热能转换而来的应变能, 形成发震层, 震源定位于下地壳热流物质富集带("热河")中的固态-半固态流变物质撞击到强弱层块之间的构造边界, 不同热构造环境和撞击角度产生5种不同类型的地震.从而为大陆地震的科学预测奠定了全新的理论基础.      

桐柏-大别造山带的剪切带阵列

桐柏－大别造山带在长期的韧性再造和脆性改造过程中，形成了有规律的剪切带阵列，包括韧性剪切带阵列和脆性剪切带阵列。它们是多期碰撞造山和造山期后伸展塌陷的产物，并在造山带的流变学和构造演化过程中起着重要的调整作用。造山带内的镁铁、超镁铁质及榴辉岩岩带则是涉及下地壳及上地幔流变的韧性剪切带阵列的代表。这些剪切带阵列经历了长期的演化历史，具正向的、反向的、螺旋形或旋回式的流变学演化轨迹。     

构造片麻岩含义及其成因机制

构造片麻岩是地壳深部构造层次上韧性变形带主要的构造岩类型之一,其内保留了大量岩石流变特征的重要信息,在前寒武纪高级变质岩区广泛发育。构造片麻岩是由强烈塑性变形作用、变质作用和部分熔融作用共同作用形成的动力变质构造岩,是一种宏观上具有明显的强塑性流变特征而没有明显粒径减小的构造岩;在露头和手标本上以密集条带状构造和片麻状构造为特征,在微观上为典型三边平衡结构和复晶石英条带构造。熔体存在是控制影响构造片麻岩形成的主要因素之一,主要变形机制为扩散蠕变和颗粒流动,使岩石整体产生巨大应变,而单个矿物晶体不产生变形。构造片麻岩带可以分为3种不同类型：同变质期的层状构造片麻岩带、退变质期的线性构造片麻岩带和网状构造片麻岩带。     

秦岭造山带根部地壳结构及流变学演化

在地质和地球物理资料基础上，运用物理学观点，研究和分析了秦岭造山带根部－大别前寒武纪变质地体的三维结构及流变学演化历史，通过现代及中－新元古代时期地壳流变学剖面的构筑，强调地壳流变学分层性及变质变形分解作用对中下地壳结构及地球动力学演化的控制作用，线状强应变带与透镜状弱应变域的规律组合，是秦岭造山带及其根部地壳结构的基本样式，并具尺度不变性，将古老中下地壳近３Ｇａ的流变学演化历史划分为７个阶段。它     

Connection between variations of the stress-strain state of the Earth’s crust and seismic activity: The example of Southern California

A three-dimensional geomechanical model of Southern California, including mountain relief, fault tectonics, and characteristic internal borders, such as the roof of the consolidated crust and Moho surface, was created. The initial stress state of the model is determined by the gravitational force and horizontal tectonic movement, established on basis of GPS observations. Monitoring of variations in the stress state of the Earth’s crust and lithosphere, which are generated by seismic processes, has shown that the model enables us to predict an increase of seismic activity in a region and to mark the places in which average earthquakes can occur in the following two weeks.     

东海陆架盆地西湖凹陷岩石圈热流变性质

为了探讨东海陆架盆地西湖凹陷岩石圈热流变性质,本文以实测地温数据为依据,模拟西湖凹陷岩石圈热结构,在此基础上,应用流变学原理模拟确定西湖凹陷岩石圈流变性质。结果表明,西湖凹陷岩石圈为一个冷地壳-热地幔、强地壳-弱地幔的"奶油蛋糕"型岩石圈。西湖凹陷平均地表热流密度为71 m W/m~2,地幔热流密度为40~65 m W/m~2,对地表热流密度的贡献度达73%~79%,地表热流受地幔热流控制,莫霍面温度在700℃左右,热岩石圈平均厚度为66 km。西湖凹陷岩石圈流变分层明显,上、中地壳基本为脆性层,下地壳和岩石圈上地幔为韧性层,岩石圈总流变强度平均约为2.65′10~(12) N/m,其中地壳流变强度为2.12′10~(12) N/m,地幔流变强度为5.29′10~(11) N/m,有效弹性厚度为11.7~14.5 km,地壳的流变性质控制了岩石圈的流变行为。此外,西湖凹陷岩石圈总强度较低,在构造应力作用下易于变形,且存在壳幔解耦现象。西湖凹陷岩石圈热状态及流变性质决定了西湖凹陷东部地区主要以浅部地壳的断层滑动和地层破裂来调节深部的构造应力。     

Rheology of Indian continental crust and upper mantle

A rheological model of the Indian shield has been constructed using the thermal structure derived from available surface heat flow and heat generation data and the flow properties of characteristic minerals and rocks like quartz, diabase and olivine which respectively represent the upper crust, lower crust and upper mantle. Lateral variations in the thicknesses of the brittle and ductile crust and of the brittle upper mantle have thus been obtained for different tectonic environments. Implications of these results to interpretation of the seismic structure of the Indian shield have been pointed out.     

Rheological gravity model of the crust and upper mantle of Transbaikalia

Based on rheological interpretation of formalized gravity models, earlier known deep-seated structures in the Earth’s crust and mantle of Transbaikalia have been detailed and new ones discovered. The structures are asymmetric and transverse relative to the Baikal rift zone. Their presence explains the peculiar features of the Baikal rift, including the one-way southeasterly direction of horizontal displacement of tectonic masses and northwestern migration of the Earth’s crust extension processes. The prolonged history (more than 250 Ma) of the Baikal rift zone and Transbaikalia mountainous country involved gravity or rotational detachments of rigid tectonic slabs from the craton and their sliding along intracrustal and subcrustal decollement zones into the above-dome area of the Transbaikalia asthenolith.     

内蒙古大青山高级变质岩中熔体线理特征

熔体线理由浅色部分熔融物质形成长的集合体或杆状体沿着应变椭球体X轴方向定向排列构成,是高级变质岩特有的一种线状构造.熔体线理发育在深部构造层次韧性变形带中,与矿物拉伸线理一样具有运动方向指向意义.熔体线理形成于伸展构造环境中,是变形作用、变质作用和部分熔融作用共同作用的结果.伸展构造变形导致岩石部分熔融,是熔体线理形成...     

东昆仑、玉树、汶川地震的发生规律和形成机理:兼论大陆地震成因与预测

青藏高原东北部东昆仑、汶川、玉树等强震的同震地表破裂不对称发育,伴随余震有规律地分别向东、南东和北北东方向迁移,很可能是源于恒河盆地流经亚东、当雄、安多、库赛湖、治多、玉树、甘孜、汶川的弧形下地壳“热河”的流速和流向变化形成的,下地壳热流物质正在向云南及邻区汇聚形成下地壳“热海”,导致长时间跨季度构造热干旱,其影响超过大气环流的作用。地表破裂不一定受断层控制,震源也不在断层面上,下地壳流动导致中地壳发震并进一步影响上地壳形成同震脆性破裂系统。大陆板内盆山过渡带地震密集,大陆板内地震是在下地壳层流的热动力作用下导致活动地壳分层变形的产物。在大陆盆山耦合、圈层耦合的非线性开放系统中,从大洋底部的软流圈层流进入大陆底部使得地幔软流圈加厚,底辟上升为大陆下地壳流动,为地震活动提供了巨量热能;热软化的下地壳缓慢的韧性流动孕育了大陆板内地震;中地壳韧 脆性剪切带易于积累能量,发生热能与应变能的转化,产生地震,形成震源层;上地壳脆性断层活动和地表破裂是地震释放深部能量的载体和方式之一。地壳稳定性评价的依据应当是地壳的活动性而不是断层的活动性。大陆活动构造区地震活跃期与平静期交替实际上是下地壳地震能量的聚散过程,体现在下地壳热主导的韧性流动构造与上地壳应力主导的脆性破裂构造之间的相互作用。下地壳热软化物质流动过程中流速、流向等突然改变触发地震,并产生共振波。大陆下地壳流层在厚度、温度、粘度、流速、流向上的变化产生一定程度的温度异常、流体异常及与其相关的大气层、电场、磁场、重力场、地球化学场、应力场、应变场、生物场等异常。合理布置天空网、地面网、地下网,综合立体监测有效的地震前兆,系统地开展长期、中期和短临地震预测,能够不断地提高地震预测水平。     

河北强震发生的地震地质条件与构造模式

地壳表层构造和深部构造互相制约是控制河北地区许多强震发生的必要地质条件。由此地质条件,在水平与垂直两个相互叠加的应力场作用下,使河北地区发生许多强震。这个构造-应力场模式,对华北地区许多强震的发生可能具有普遍意义。     

深成构造作用及大陆壳流变学研究

大陆地壳结构具不均一性，由此表现出分层性。深成构造作用是应变局部化的过程，表现为韧性剪切变形作用。地壳中近水平或网络状反射体韧性剪切带的产生，为深成构造作用的结果。地壳结构的特点和深成构造作用都与大陆岩石圈流变性有密切的关系。另外，熔融作用对深成构造作用及岩石流变性也有重要的影响。     

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987114000024

We propose that the brittle-ductile transition(BDT) controls the seismic cycle.In particular,the movements detected by space geodesy record the steady state deformation in the ductile lower crust,whereas the stick-slip behavior of the brittle upper crust is constrained by its larger friction.GPS data allow analyzing the strain rate along active plate boundaries.In all tectonic settings,we propose that earthquakes primarily occur along active fault segments characterized by relative minima of strain rate,segments which are locked or slowly creeping.We discuss regional examples where large earthquakes happened in areas of relative low strain rate.Regardless the tectonic style,the interseismic stress and strain pattern inverts during the coseismic stage.Where a dilated band formed during the interseismic stage,this will be shortened at the coseismic stage,and vice-versa what was previously shortened,it will be dilated.The interseismic energy accumulation and the coseismic expenditure rather depend on the tectonic setting(extensional,contractional,or strike-slip).The gravitational potential energy dominates along normal faults,whereas the elastic energy prevails for thrust earthquakes and performs work against the gravity force.The energy budget in strike-slip tectonic setting is also primarily due elastic energy.Therefore,precursors may be different as a function of the tectonic setting.In this model,with a given displacement,the magnitude of an earthquake results from the coseismic slip of the deformed volume above the BDT rather than only on the fault length,and it also depends on the fault kinematics.     

Last Deglacial Soft−Sediment Deformation at Shawan on the Eastern Tibetan Plateau and Implications for Deformation Processes and Seismic Magnitudes

The eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau is characterized by frequent earthquakes; however, research of paleo?earthquakes in the area has been limited, owing to the alpine topography and strong erosion. Detailed investigations of soft?sediment deformation (SSD) structures are valuable for understanding the trigger mechanisms, deformation processes, and the magnitudes of earthquakes that generate such structures, and help us to understand tectonic activity in the region. To assess tectonic activity during the late Quaternary, we studied a well?exposed sequence of Shawan lacustrine sediments, 7.0 m thick, near Lake Diexi in the upper reaches of the Minjiang River. Deformation is recorded by both ductile structures (load casts, flame structures, pseudonodules, ball?and?pillow structures, and liquefied convolute structures) and brittle structures (liquefied breccia, and microfaults). Taking into account the geodynamic setting of the area and its known tectonic activity, these SSD structures can be interpreted in terms of seismic shocks. The types and forms of the structures, the maximum liquefaction distances, and the thicknesses of the horizons with SSD structures in the Shawan section indicate that they record six strong earthquakes of magnitude 6–7 and one with magnitude >7. A recent study showed that the Songpinggou fault is the seismogenic structure of the 1933 Ms7.5 Diexi earthquake. The Shawan section is located close to the junction of the Songpinggou and Minjiang faults, and records seven earthquakes with magnitudes of ~7. We infer, therefore, that the SSD structures in the Shawan section document deglacial activity along the Songpinggou fault.     

Reactivation of deep faults beneath Southern Apennines: evidence from the 1990–1991 Potenza seismic sequences

We relocate the 1990–1991 Potenza (Southern Apennines belt, Italy) sequences and calculate focal mechanisms. This seismicity clusters along an E–W, dextral strike–slip structure. Second-order clusters are also present and reflect the activation of minor shears. The depth distribution of earthquakes evidences a peak between 14 and 20 km, within the basement of the subducting Apulian plate. The analysed seismicity does not mirror that of Southern Apennines, which include NW–SE striking normal faults and earthquakes concentrated within the first 15 km of the crust. We suggest that the E–W faults affecting the foreland region of Apennine propagate up to 25 km of depth. The Potenza earthquakes reflect the reactivation of a deep, preexisting fault system. We conclude that the seismotectonic setting of Apennines is characterized by NW–SE normal faults affecting the upper 15 km of the crust, and by E–W deeper strike–slip faults cutting the crystalline basement of the chain.     

青海共和盆地岩石圈热-流变结构及地热意义

地球深度热状况是深部地球动力学和岩石圈活动性研究的重要内容, 岩石圈热结构和热-流变结构可以很好地揭示岩石圈范围内的热状况。近年来, 在青海共和盆地钻探揭露了深部高温干热岩体, 关于其热源机制尚未有定论。本文以青海共和盆地为研究对象, 分析壳内温度分布和流变强度, 探讨壳内低速体的地质属性。结果表明, 共和盆地的地壳流变结构从上而下分为脆性和韧性两层, 韧性层又包括中地壳和下地壳两层韧性层, 在上地壳尺度均表现为脆性破裂为主, 并逐渐过渡为韧性流变; 恰卜恰地区在脆性破裂的上地壳延伸至中下地壳时, 破裂沿一系列滑脱面发生韧性滑动, 局部地段形成壳内熔融, 为恰卜恰地区提供了额外的热源, 使其大地热流值(109.6 mW/m2)显著高于贵德地区(77.6 mW/m2)。这一认识为共和盆地壳内低速体存在提供了新的佐证, 也为区内干热岩热源分析以及高温地热资源探测开发提供了科学依据。