The Asia-Pacific Rim's transport and telecommunications systems: spatial structure and corporate control since the mid-1980s

There is a need to move from discussing the Asia-Pacific Rim's leading port cities as shipping centres measured by container throughput. This shift in focus involves examining how different transport and telecommunications systems are interacting with each other at an international scale under the power and control of major world operators. Using a three-level network framework an attempt is made to illustrate and explain the formation of multilayered trade/communications corridors and hubs/headquarters in the Asia-Pacific Rim since the mid-1980s and to identify the factors affecting them. From this examination of spatial structure and corporate control three levels of cities in the Asia-Pacific Rim are recognised: first level cities with strong corporate representation in container shipping, air cargo, air passenger and telecommunications; second level cities with marked corporate representation in one but not all four modes; and third level cities with no marked corporate representation in any mode but with strong throughput. The third level includes the Asia-Pacific Rim's ‘true’ port cities. Perhaps the ambiguous category ‘port city’ should be reserved for them. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

New tendency of Chinese container port system: 1998–2010

By Hirschman–Herfindahl Index, the paper measures the spatial structure transformation of the Chinese container port system from the perspective of cargo flow in recent 13 years. It indicates that the spatial structure of container port system enters into “the challenge of the periphery” phase as a whole, the decentralization of container flow become the mainstream tendency of the spatial variation of China’s container port system; on the other hand, the spatial structure of container port system shows different characteristic in seven port regions, such as low-level equilibrium, single-gateway, multi-gateway and so on. It is a fact that multi-gateway port region of container port system has formed in Yangtze River Delta and Pearl River Delta region. Economic and foreign trade development, government macro-control and policy guidance, challenge of the periphery, network expansion of the terminal operators and shipping liners are the main driving forces for these new phenomena.     

Frontline soldiers of globalisation: Port–city evolution and regional competition

This paper is an empirical attempt to measure the relative concentration of port–city functions in the context of globalisation. It reviews a number of urban and port issues regarding their complementary and contradictory aspects about the evolution of port cities. The main purpose is to verify how port function is more or less important to local economies, compared to other functions, through a temporal and global approach. Based on a matrix of port–city centrality and intermediacy, the main indicators available for international comparison are urban population and container throughput. An analysis of 653 places between 1970 and 2005 period is provided, using the relative concentration index (RCI) proposed by Vallega. The appropriate geographical scale to measure the relative evolution of port cities at a global level is discussed. Results tend to question previous models which consider functional and spatial separation between the city and its port as an ineluctable process. The port–city evolution appears to be gradual rather than linear or chaotic, and in many cases largely influenced by regional factors and local strategies.     

Peripherality in the global container shipping network: the case of the Southern African container port system

Regional trade co-operation, economic growth and greater political stability have enabled increased container throughput and container port capacity development. Earlier academic work has indicated that the functional position of this port region in the global maritime network might be shifting from a remote region in the periphery of the network to a more intermediate position. This paper aims to analyze the changing level of peripherality and remoteness of the Southern African container port system as part of the global container shipping network. The central hypothesis is that Southern Africa has moved from a remote shipping region to a more central shipping region in the global network. The methodology consists of the calculation of network measures for Southern African ports. The changing geographical distribution of flows among the main container ports in South Africa, Namibia, Mozambique, Mauritius and Madagascar will also be explored in terms of their respective shipping services, port calling patterns, market structure (in terms of the number of active carriers) and the up-scaling of vessel and port capacity. The overall result is a mapped port hierarchical structure with a clear indication of the shifted maritime centrality of Southern African ports from 1996 to the present decade.     

Containerisation in the Mediterranean: between global ocean routeways and feeder services

The basin of the Mediterranean Sea has become an important focus of container traffic. Two functions are represented by this activity: one, the transhipment of containers involved in global networks; and, second, the intra-regional distribution of containers. This trade is revitalising port activity in many parts of the basin. Most striking has been the emergence of new hub ports, many of which now eclipse old-established port cities. The revitalisation offers prospects for a third function: the possibility of becoming the southern gateway of Europe. This paper examines the patterns, problems and prospects of the ‘new’ Mediterranean in the era of containerisation. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

From St. John's to Miami: Containerisation at Eastern Seaboard Ports

The North American Eastern Seaboard is one of the major container handling regions of the world. However, since 1975 it has declined relative to the world development of containerisation. Whereas in 1975, 20.4% of the world's containers passed through Eastern Seaboard ports, in 1995 the figure was 7.2%. In the period 1975 to 1995, ports in Canada and the Mid Atlantic range have held their own relatively in the proportion of containers handled in the Eastern Seaboard. Ports in the North East, primarily New York, have lost ground; ports in the South have gained. Rank size analysis and the Gini coefficient show a deconcentration of container handling away from New York to middle ranked ports, especially Hampton Roads, Charleston, SC and Montreal. Global factors – universal adoption of containerisation, changing trade routes brought about by post-Panamax ships and intermodality, and cargo sharing among alliances – explain the relative decline of the Eastern Seaboard ports as a group. Individual port development is largely accounted for by how well ports respond to the global factors. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Determinants of liner shippping network configuration: a two-region comparison

The worldwide network of container transport services is becoming increasingly diffuse. The different strategies of shipping lines, the balance of power between shipping lines and shippers and constraints related to inland transportation all have a potential impact on the development of maritime shipping networks. Moreover, strategic alliances between the port and the shipping industry, which have both been driven by strong concentration processes and vertical integration, have a profound influence on the maritime network structure and also on the grade of integration of a region in the global maritime transport network. This paper seeks to understand the evolution of maritime networks in and between two differently developed regions. The focus is on the trade route and networks between the West Coast of South America and Northern Europe. The paper analyses the network structures and the behaviour of shipping lines in different economic contexts and port systems. Current and historical developments in the two regions under study have led to their relative position within the global maritime network and illustrate the potential implications of being peripheral or central in this network. The empirical results are compared with known strategies of shipping lines. The authors aim to answer the question of how far the configuration of hinterlands determines calling patterns and if strategic alliances and vertical integration reduce footloose behaviour of shipping lines. Further, we discuss how far, under the current configuration, shipping lines influence port development, and also the reverse situation of how far port accessibility and performance influence maritime network developments. The two region approach provides insights on the constraining factors of maritime network development between two differently developed regions and the associated implications for trade development.     

Some consequences and impacts of port development — the Hong Kong case)

Over the past century, Hong Kong port has experienced a fascinating development process as it has become one of the world's number one container ports. This paper explores some of the major external impacts and consequences of Hong Kong's past and current port development experience, with particular reference to environmental planning and control. After a brief introduction to Hong Kong's port, the paper focuses on the planning and management lessons related to the port's development. The paper then concludes with its impact on and reference for mainland China's port and port-city development.     

Multimodal Transport Operations in international cargo movement: Implications for transport policies and development in tropical Africa

The system of Multimodal Transport Operations (MTO) is aimed at facilitating international movement of traffic on a door-to-door basis. Such a system involves the integration of the marine, port and inland transport sectors of trading partners. The existing transportation systems in tropical Africa do not meet the standards required for such operations. This paper examines the deficiencies in the transport systems and analyses the implications of introducing the MTO system on transport policies, investment, insurance matters and port consolidation in tropical Africa.     

Container ports,local benefits and transportation worker earnings

Over the past 50 years, containerization has both enabled and reflected the articulation of increasingly concentrated and complex global trade flows. Once close infrastructural, economic and institutional ties between seaports and port cities have been loosened, since major ports now serve producers and consumers in widely dispersed hinterlands. This process has been especially intense in North America, where west coast ports serve markets across the continent. At the same time, many of the external costs of increased port activity are incurred in port cities. Hence, questions about the changing nature of employment in port and related goods-handling sectors have become increasingly important for understanding the share of economic benefits received by port cities. This paper focuses on the effects of containerization, and related changes in transportation regulation, on port-logistics worker earnings in major United States port cities since 1975. A difference-in-differences framework is used to examine the relative annual earnings of dock, trucking and warehouse workers in major container port cities. The analysis shows that, with notable exceptions, port-logistics worker earnings in major container ports are not necessarily higher than those of comparable workers. The findings provide further insights into the strained relationship between seaports and port cities in the era of containerization and economic globalization.

China’s container-related dynamics, 1990–2005

This study seeks to gauge how far China’s container-related dynamics between 1990 and 2005 fit into the wider perspective about transport and development within developing countries. In particular, attention is focussed on the role of specific modes to determine the extent of the penetration of containers within China. Before addressing these key issues extant models relating to an understanding of port and transport evolution in less-developed countries are recalled, synthesized and used as a base upon which an appropriate review of China’s case can be conducted. Applying them to China’s northern, central and southern port ranges not only helps assess the efficacy of these models but also highlights the contribution of individual modes.

The challenge of peripheral ports: an Asian perspective

The growth of ports peripheral to the dominant container hubs has been well documented in North America and Europe, and has led to the elaboration of several theoretical models. This paper applies these models to the situation in South East Asia where much of the growth in containerisation is taking place. While confirming the emergence of several peripheral ports that are mounting challenges to the major hubs, we demonstrate that the factors behind the challenges are different to those postulated in the literature. Issues of governance arising out of the complex restructuring of the global ports industry are singled out. We suggest that a new geography of container terminals based on management and operational strategies of private and public bodies involved in the port industry needs to be fashioned.     

Marketing strategies: a container foreland study of the port of Miami

The marketing of port forelands will become increasingly more important in an era of load center development resulting from container technologies. In this paper, we have provided a mechanism for identifying overseas port marketing areas where trade development and port promotion should be exercised. The Port of Miami's trade relationships were the foci of this study. Location quotients served to highlight the competitive aspect of port facilities.     

港口环境镉和铅的迁移行为研究及模型的建立

港口矿产品堆场的重金属溶出作为港口土壤、水体的重要污染源不容忽视。本文在天津港口7个有代表性的矿产品堆场采集土壤和水体样品,确定重金属的污染状况;应用微宇宙系统模拟Cd和Pb在港口沉积物和水体生态系统中的迁移行为,通过建立多介质逸度模型对微宇宙系统的模拟情况进行拟合,探索Cd和Pb在沉积物和水体中的归趋和迁移规律。现场采样分析表明,矿产品堆场重金属污染较为严重,其中Cd污染显著,超过国家土壤三级标准。微宇宙系统试验表明,Cd的污染状况分析与现场采样分析结果一致;沉降是Cd和Pb在水环境中主要的迁移过程,在试验时长216 h内,Cd大约有61%保留在沉积物中,倾向于停留在水相中,容易通过水体的平流和扩散扩大污染范围,而Pb有99%保留在沉积物中,更容易吸附在悬浮物表面而向沉积物相沉积。研究表明,露天堆放的矿产品的影响是显著的,应尽可能采用集装箱堆放方式,减少矿石直接与雨水接触的机会,封闭污染通道,降低环境效应。     

Factors of bacteria and virus transport in groundwater

The underground transport of pathogenic bacteria and viruses may be described by the general transport equation considering dispersion, adsorption, and biological elimination. The survival time of bacteria and viruses in groundwater is different for the specific species and for the specific groundwater environment. Dispersion causes a distribution of pollutants in time and space, thus their concentration decreases over time and with transport distance. Microorganisms are reversibly adsorbed on underground particles, which causes a retardation of their transport velocity with respect to groundwater flow velocity. An additional approach is provided by the filter theory. Presented at the International Symposium, International Association of Hydrogeologists, “Impact of Agricultural Activities on Ground Water Quality and Quantity,” Prague, Czechoslovakia, September, 1982.     

Numerical modeling of coupled fluid flow and thermal and reactive biogeochemical transport in porous and fractured media

Subsurface contamination problems of metals and radionuclides are ubiquitous. Metals and radionuclides may exist in the solute phase or may be bound to soil particles and interstitial portions of the geologic matrix. Accurate tools to reliably predict the migration and transformation of these metals and radionuclides in the subsurface environment enhance the ability of environmental scientists, engineers, and decision makers to analyze their impact and to evaluate the efficacy of alternative remediation techniques prior to incurring expense in the field. A mechanistic-based numerical model could provide such a tool. This paper communicates the development and verification of a mechanistically coupled fluid-flow thermal-reactive biogeochemical-transport model where both fast and slow reactions occur in porous and fractured media. Theoretical bases, numerical implementations, and numerical experiments using the model are described. A definition of the “rates” of fast/equilibrium reactions is presented to come up with a consistent set of governing equations. Two example problems are presented. The first one is a reactive transport problem which elucidates the non-isothermal effects on heterogeneous reactions. It also demonstrates that the rates of fast/equilibrium reactions are not necessarily greater than that of slow/kinetic reactions in the context of reactive transport. The second example focuses on a complicated but realistic advective–dispersive–reactive transport problem. This example exemplifies the need for innovative numerical algorithms to solve problems involving stiff geochemical reactions. It also demonstrates that rates of all fast/equilibrium reactions are finite and definite. Furthermore, it is noted that a species-versus-time curve cannot be used to characterize the rate of homogeneous fast/equilibrium reaction in a reactive transport system even if one and only one such reaction is responsible for the production of this species.     

Large wood transport as significant influence on flood risk in a mountain village

An important issue that is not considered in most flood risk assessments in mountain villages in Spain is the transport of solids associated with the flood flow, in this case, large wood transport. The transport and deposition of this wood in urban areas may be a potentially worse hazard than the flood flow itself. Despite its importance, large wood is a key ecological element in rivers, so removing it could be an unsuccessful approach. Therefore, efforts are needed in the better understanding of wood transport and deposition in streams. To analyse this process, scenario-based 2D hydrodynamic flood modelling was carried out. Since flood risk assessment has considerable intrinsic uncertainty, probabilistic thinking was complemented by possibilistic thinking, considering worst-case scenarios. This procedure obtained a probabilistic flood map for a 500-year return period. Then, a series of scenarios was built based on wood budget to simulate wood transport and deposition. Results allowed us to identify the main infrastructures sensitive to the passing of large wood and simulate the consequences of their blockage due to wood. The potential damage was estimated as well as the preliminary social vulnerability for all scenarios (with and without wood transport). This work shows that wood transport and deposition during flooding may increase potential damage at critical stream configurations (bridges) by up to 50 % and the number of potentially exposed people nearby these areas by up to 35 %.     

A global method for coupling transport with chemistry in heterogeneous porous media

Modeling reactive transport in porous media, using a local chemical equilibrium assumption, leads to a system of advection–diffusion PDEs coupled with algebraic equations. When solving this coupled system, the algebraic equations have to be solved at each grid point for each chemical species and at each time step. This leads to a coupled non-linear system. In this paper, a global solution approach that enables to keep the software codes for transport and chemistry distinct is proposed. The method applies the Newton–Krylov framework to the formulation for reactive transport used in operator splitting. The method is formulated in terms of total mobile and total fixed concentrations and uses the chemical solver as a black box, as it only requires that one be able to solve chemical equilibrium problems (and compute derivatives) without having to know the solution method. An additional advantage of the Newton–Krylov method is that the Jacobian is only needed as an operator in a Jacobian matrix times vector product. The proposed method is tested on the MoMaS reactive transport benchmark.     

Numerical modeling of the flow and transport of radionuclides in heterogeneous porous media

This paper is concerned with numerical methods for the modeling of flow and transport of contaminant in porous media. The numerical methods feature the mixed finite element method over triangles as a solver to the Darcy flow equation and a conservative finite volume scheme for the concentration equation. The convective term is approximated with a Godunov scheme over the dual finite volume mesh, whereas the diffusion–dispersion term is discretized by piecewise linear conforming triangular finite elements. It is shown that the scheme satisfies a discrete maximum principle. Numerical examples demonstrate the effectiveness of the methodology for a coupled system that includes an elliptic equation and a diffusion–convection–reaction equation arising when modeling flow and transport in heterogeneous porous media. The proposed scheme is robust, conservative, efficient, and stable, as confirmed by numerical simulations.      

From break-bulk to containers: the transformation of general cargo handling and trade

The era of containerisation has brought about considerable changes in maritime transport. This paper describes how general cargo handling and port operationss have been transformed in the wake of unitisation. It stresses that the changes have had far-reaching effects on port labour and upon the social and physical character of port cities. From places of intense labour activity, docks and their adjacent communities have been fundamentally re-structured. The bonds that produced vibrant communities characterised by strong social and political activism have been destroyed. The modern port city is shaped by technological developments that take place on sites far removed from the former docklands. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.