On the experimental silicification of microorganisms II. On the time of appearance of eukaryotic organisms in the fossil record

On the basis of ultrastructural, biochemical and genetic studies, bacteria and blue green algae (Kingdom Monera, all prokaryotes) differ unambiguously from the eukaryotic organisms (Fungi, plants sensu stricto) and protists or protoctists, (Copeland, 1956). The gap between eukaryotes and prokaryotes is recognized as the most profound evolutionary discontinuity in the living world. This gap is reflected in the fossil record. Fossil remains of Archaean and Proterozoic Aeons primarily consist of prokaryotes and the Phanerozoic is overwhelmingly characterized by fossils of the megascopic eukaryotic groups, both metazoa and metaphyta. Based on the morphological interpretation of microscopic objects structurally preserved in Precambrian cherts, the time of appearance of remains of eukaryotic organisms in the fossil record has been claimed to be as early as 2.7 · 10⁹ years ago, (Ka?mierczak, 1976). Others suggest chronologies varying between 1.7 to 1.3 · 10⁹ (Schopf et al., 1973) or a time approaching 1.3 · 10⁹ years (Cloud, 1974).There is general agreement that many of the Ediacaran faunas, which have been dated at about 680 m.y. are fossils of megascopic soft-bodied invertebrate animals. Since all invertebrates are eukaryotic, the ca. 680 m.y. date for deposition of these animal assemblages may represent the earliest appearance of eukaryotic organisms. But the question remains as to whether there is definitive evidence for eukaryotic cells before this “benchmark” of the late Precambrian.An excellent discussion of this particular problem as especially relating to acritarchs extending from rocks of Upper Riphean through Vendian and into the basal Cambrian is presented in recent studies by Vidal (1974, 1976) in Late Precambrian microfossils from the Visingsö rocks of southern Sweden.Previous work on the laboratory silicification of wood and algal mat communities (Leo and Barghoorn, 1976) suggested that further analysis of “artificial fossils” might be of aid in the interpretation of fossil morphology toward the ultimate solution of this problem. Thus the procedure developed by one of us (ESB) for laboratory wood silicification was adapted to various smaller objects.By successive immersions of wet cellular aggregates, colonies of various organisms and abiotic organic microspheres in tetraethyl orthosilicate, silicified cells and structures are produced which bear an interesting resemblance to ancient chert-embedded microfossils. Our observation of these microorganisms and proteinoid microspheres silicified in the laboratory as well as of degrading microorganisms, both eukaryotic and prokaryotic, have led us to conclude that many, if not all, of the criteria for assessing fossil eukaryotic microorganisms are subject to serious criticism in interpretation. We studied a large variety of prokaryotic algae, some eukaryotic algae, fungi, protozoa, and abiotic organic microspheres stable at essentially neutral pH. In some cases, degradation and/or silicification systematically altered both size and appearances of microorganisms. By the use of monoalgal cultures of blue-green algae, features resembling nuclei, chloroplasts, tetrads, pyrenoids, and large cell size may be simulated. In many cases individual members of these cultures show so much variation that they may be mistaken as belonging to more than one species. The size ranges for silicified prokaryotic and eukaryotic algae overlap. Several prokaryotes routinely yielded spherical or filamentous structures that resembled large cells. Because of genuine large sizes (e.g., Prochloron), shrinkage, systematic alteration or congregation of unicells to form other structures we find sizes to be of very limited use in determining whether an organism of simple morphology was prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Although some “prebiotic proteinoid microspheres” (of Fox and Harada, 1960) are impossible to silicify with our laboratory methods, those stable at neutral pH (Hsu and Fox, 1976) formed spherical objects that morphologically resemble silicified algae or fungal spores. Many had internal structure. We conclude that even careful morphometric studies of fossil microorganisms are subject to many sources of misinterpretation. Even though it is a logical deduction that eukaryotic microorganisms evolved before Ediacaran time there is no compelling evidence for fossil eukaryotes prior to the late Precambrian metazoans.     

On the experiemntal silicification of microorganisms. I. Microbial growth on organosilicon compounds

In the course of experimenting on the laboratory silification of algal cells and algal mats a series of organosilicon compounds was employed in attempts to simulate fossilization. These compounds provided a silica source for emplacement in the organic matrices of the algae. It was found that during the silicification process silicon acetate, triethoxysilane propylamine and tetraethylorthosilicate (tetraethoxysilane) yielded hydrolytic products which supported growth of microbes. Large numbers of microorganisms: several fungi, including yeast and an Aspergillus sp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were isolated from salt solutions containing these organosilicon compounds as the sole source of carbon. The rate of hydrolysis yielding silica for emplacement was not affected by growth of these microorganisms. The isolation and growth of pure cultures of P. aeruginosa on either triethylsilane propylamine or tetraethylorthosilicate is described.     

On experimental reflected density currents and the interpretation of certain turbidites

Experimental results are reported concerning the nature of reflected flows generated when density currents are incident upon ramp-type flow obstructions. The reflected flows are bores (moving hydraulic jumps that transport mass) with flow characteristics in common with either a group of solitary waves (weak Type A bores) or the original density current (strong Type C bores). Alternatively, the bore may have attributes in common with both of these end-member forms (intermediate Type B bores). Bore strength is positively correlated with the ratio of reverse flow thickness to that of the residual tail of the forward flow. The largest values of this ratio occur when ‘proximal’reflections arrive at the steeper ramps. Measured particle paths in the bores indicate that natural examples will have the potential to transport and deposit sediment. Strong bores have velocity characteristics very similar to the original current and thus in nature the generated sequence of sedimentary structures will resemble those of the original depositing current. The train of solitary waves that make up a weak bore sequence exhibits a pulsating velocity profile at a point. Such flows may thus generate repeated sequences of structures separated by fine ‘drapes’that are distinguishable from the deposits of the original turbidity current. These conclusions are applied to examples of reflected turbidites described from the Palaeozoic to Quaternary sedimentary record.     

Modern and historical tropical cyclone and tsunami deposits at the coast of Myanmar: Implications for their identification and preservation in the geological record

The catastrophic storm surge of tropical cyclone Nargis in May 2008 demonstrated Myanmar's exposure to coastal flooding. The investigation of sediments left by tropical cyclone Nargis and its predecessors is an important contribution to prepare for the impact of future tropical cyclones and tsunamis in the region, because they may extend the database for long-term hazard assessment beyond the relatively short instrumental and historical record. This study, for the first time, presents deposits of modern and historical tropical cyclones and tsunamis from the coast of Myanmar. The aim is to establish regional sedimentary characteristics that may help to identify and discriminate cyclones and tsunamis in the geological record, and to document post-depositional changes due to tropical weathering in the first years after deposition. These findings if used to interpret older deposits will extend the existing instrumental record of flooding events in Myanmar. Evaluating deposits that can be related to specific events, such as the 2006 tropical cyclone Mala and the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, indicates similar sedimentary characteristics for both types of sediments. Landward thinning and fining trends, littoral sediment sources and sharp lower contacts allow for the differentiation from underlying deposits, while discrimination between tropical cyclone and tsunami origin is challenging based on the applied methods. The modern analogues also demonstrate a rather low preservation potential of the sand sheets due to carbonate dissolution, formation of organic top soils, and coastal erosion. However, in coastal depressions sand sheets of sufficient thickness (>10 cm) may be preserved where the shoreline is prograding or stable. In the most seaward swale of a beach-ridge plain at the Rakhine coast, two sand sheets have been identified in addition to the deposits of 2006 tropical cyclone Mala. Based on a combination of optically stimulated luminescence, radiocarbon and ¹³⁷Cs dating, the younger sand layer is related to 1982 tropical cyclone Gwa, while the older sand layer is most probably the result of an event that took place prior to 1950. Comparison with historical records indicates that the archive is only sensitive to tropical cyclones of category 4 (or higher) with landfall directly in or a few tens of kilometres north of the study area. While the presented tropical cyclone records are restricted to the last 100 years, optically stimulated luminescence ages of the beach ridges indicate that the swales landward of the one investigated in this study might provide tropical cyclone information for at least the past 700 years.     

Evolution of landscapes on the double mountain fork of the brazos river,West Texas: Implications for preservation and visibility of the archaeological record

The Double Mountain Fork of the Brazos River is an ephemeral stream that flows across the western Rolling Plains of West Texas. Intensive pedestrian archaeological survey, covering some 8700 acres of the drainage, produced a site inventory with a general paucity of identifiable Paleoindian and Early to Middle Archaic components, whereas Late Archaic and Late Prehistoric sites were widespread and found in a diversity of landscape positions. Geoarchaeological investigations were conducted in conjunction with this survey and later testing activities, and suggested that much of this temporally and spatially skewed archaeological record may be attributable to the evolution of landscapes during the late Pleistocene and Holocene time period, rather than original occupation intensities. Most of the landscape in the study area has been subject to erosional stripping, but in selected localities late Pleistocene and Holocene depositional landform-sediment assemblages of fluvial, alluvial/colluvial fan, and eolian origin are preserved. With few exceptions, however, depositional contexts or stable geomorphic surfaces more than 3000 years old are erosionally truncated, completely absent, or deeply buried. As a result, a bias is imposed that renders older cultural records either poorly preserved or deeply buried and of low visibility to traditional survey techniques. Similar natural formation processes are likely at other locations on the western Rolling Plains, and should be considered during interpretation of prehistoric population dynamics in the area. The biases imposed by such natural formation processes on the western Rolling Plains are slightly different from other areas in the Southern Great Plains of the United States, but in most cases the known archaeological record corresponds with opportunities for preservation and visibility provided by geologic trajectories, and may reflect little on spatial and temporal discontinuities in prehistoric cultural activity.     

Development of microbial carbonates in the Lower Cretaceous Codó Formation (north‐east Brazil): Implications for interpretation of microbialite facies associations and palaeoenvironmental conditions

The study of microbial carbonates has acquired new significance with the recognition that they retain valuable information related to biomineralization processes associated with microbial activity throughout geological time. Additionally, microbialites have a demonstrated economic potential to serve as excellent hydrocarbon reservoirs. The Lower Cretaceous Codó Formation, located in the Parnaiba Basin of north‐east Brazil, comprises a unique stratigraphic sequence of up to 20 m thick, well‐preserved carbonate microbialites. Deposited in a continental basin during the initial break up and separation of South America from Africa in the Early Cretaceous, this lacustrine carbonate sequence provides an excellent example to investigate the palaeoenvironmental conditions controlling microbialite facies development. Based on macroscopic and microscopic observations of outcrop and drill core samples, four microbialite facies (stromatolite, lamina, massive and spherulite) were defined and distinguished by textures and microbial fossil content. Changes in facies type are related to alternating palaeo‐water depths, as reflected by ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr cycles resulting from fluctuations in the sources of meteoric water. Clumped isotope measurements of stromatolitic fabrics yield precipitation palaeo‐temperatures with an average value of 35°C. The δ¹⁸O values of bulk carbonate (?6·8 to ?1·5‰ Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite) imply precipitation from water with calculated δ¹⁸O values between ?1·6‰ and 1·8‰ Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water, reflecting precipitation from variably modified meteoric waters. The δ¹³C values of bulk carbonate (?15·5 to ?7·2‰ Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite) indicate a significant input of carbon derived from aerobic or anaerobic respiration of organic matter. Combined, the data indicate that the evolution of the Codó Formation occurred in a closed lacustrine palaeoenvironment with alternating episodes of contracting and expanding lake levels, which led to the development of specific microbialite facies associations. The results provide new insights into palaeoenvironmental settings, biogenicity and early diagenetic processes involved in the formation of ancient carbonate microbialites and, by extension, improve the knowledge of the reservoir geology of correlative units in deep waters offshore Brazil.     

Re‐interpretation of the Meikirch pollen record,Swiss Alpine Foreland,and implications for Middle Pleistocene chronostratigraphy

The Meikirch drilling site in the Swiss Midlands north of Bern is re‐interpreted using a combination of sedimentological logging, pollen analyses and luminescence dating. The sedimentary sequence comprises about 70 m of lacustrine deposits, overlain by about 39 m of coarse glacial outwash interpreted to represent at least two independent ice advances. Pollen analyses of the apparently complete limnic sequence reveal a basal late glacial period followed by three warm phases that are interrupted by two stadial periods (Meikirch complex). The warm periods were previously correlated with the Holsteinian and Eemian Interglacials. According to luminescence dating, and with consideration of evidence for Middle Pleistocene climate patterns at other central European sites, a correlation of the Meikirch complex with marine isotope stage (MIS) 7 is now proposed. If this correlation is correct, it implies the presence of three intervals with interglacial character during MIS 7. However, the late Middle Pleistocene vegetational features of the Meikirch complex show significant differences when compared with the pollen record from the Velay region, central France. Possible explanations for this discrepancy are distinct Middle Pleistocene patterns of atmospheric circulation over central Europe and a different distribution of vegetation refugia compared to the Eemian Interglacial and the Holocene. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Growth increment and stable isotope analysis of marine bivalves: Implications for the geoarchaeological record of El Niño

The 1982–1983 El Niño event afforded the opportunity to develop criteria for the recognition of ancient El Niños using mollusks from archaeological sites along coastal South America. A combination of growth increment and stable isotope analyses indicated that elevated sea surface temperatures during large scale El Niños leave a record decodable from the growth patterns of selected bivalve shells. The intertidal venerid Chione subrugosa displayed a pronounced break in the valve margin profile following the 1982-1983 event but provided an inconsistent stable isotope pattern. The subtidal carditid Trachycardium procerum, on the other hand, preserved a discernible and diagnostic growth interruption as well as an expected trend in stable isotope indicators of salinity and temperature change. We conclude that some of the major culturally disruptive El Niño events can be recognized in the geoarchaeological record by these techniques, especially if ancillary information, such as faunal distribution patterns, are also considered. Perhaps the most serious constraint upon application of this approach involves microstratigraphic resolution of shell midden deposits. Stratigraphic sampling of midden material should be accompanied, if possible, by sampling of proximal natural strata. The chances of discovery of major El Niño perturbations in the geoarchaeological record of shell middens is enhanced by the catastrophic nature of such events and by the indication that major El Niños have a high probability of being closely spaced in time.     

Seafloor evidence for palaeo-ice streaming and calving of the grounded Irish Sea Ice Stream: Implications for the interpretation of its final deglaciation phase

High resolution swath bathymetry data reveal a previously glaciated submarine terrain 20 km offshore Anglesey, north Wales, UK. The detailed documentation of remarkably well-preserved subglacial and ice-marginal bedforms provides evidence for a grounded part of the Irish Sea Ice Stream in a phase of deglaciation. The observed ribbed moraines, drumlins, flutes and eskers indicate a converging ice flow to the west, which then turns south into the deeper central Irish Sea Basin. Using the relative position of the bedforms, their spatial distribution and the morphological resemblance with bedforms described in the literature, this subglacial terrain is interpreted as representing a transition zone of frozen to thawed bed conditions during deglaciation, with an eastwards migrating thawing front that partly altered the edge of the surveyed ribbed moraine field by drumlinization. The abundant De Geer moraines and iceberg scour marks superimposed on drumlins and flutes reveal that the final retreat of the grounded ice margin in the surveyed area terminated into a water-mass with extensive iceberg calving. As the glacial terrain is well preserved, no significant burial has taken place, either by glacially or terrestrially derived sediment. The strong tidal currents at present keep the submarine terrain swept clean of contemporary sediment cover.     

The first record of redfieldiiform fish (Actinopterygii) from the Upper Triassic of Korea: Implications for paleobiology and paleobiogeography of Redfieldiiformes

A new genus and species of redfieldiiform fish, Hiascoactinus boryeongensis gen. et sp. nov., is described based on a nearly complete specimen from the Upper Triassic Amisan Formation of South Korea. Hiascoactinus is distinguished from other redfieldiiforms by having a barely ornamented dermal skull surface except for the snout region, two heteromorphic suborbitals arranged vertically behind the postorbital, a pistol-shaped suprascapular, and dorsal and anal fins with divided fin membranes between rays. The morphological features of the snout region and dorsal and anal fins of Hiascoactinus provide important clues to understand its feeding and swimming behavior. All previously proposed Asian redfieldiiform fossils are inaccurately classified, and consequently, Hiascoactinus is regarded as the only valid redfieldiiform taxon in Asia. Hiascoactinus is assigned to the basal group of redfieldiiforms primarily based on the presence of an antopercle. The basal phylogenetic position of Hiascoactinus indicates that basal redfieldiiforms dispersed from the southern Gondwanaland to the easternmost Laurasia through the terrestrial water system, and these two landmasses were connected during the Late Triassic.     

Heterogeneous rare earth element (REE) patterns and concentrations in a fossil bone: Implications for the use of REE in vertebrate taphonomy and fossilization history

A bone fragment (CGDQ-3) of Falcariusutahensis, a therizinosaur from the Early Cretaceous Cedar Mountain Formation, Utah, contained within a carbonate nodule, was analyzed by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) in order to investigate REE variability within a thin-walled phalanx. Previous studies have found depth-related REE pattern variations; however, in CGDQ-3 variation occurs along the circumference of the bone. NASC-normalized REE patterns and concentrations vary between two apparent end members. A light-REE enriched (LREE) pattern, similar to solution ICP-MS analysis of this bone, characterizes approximately two-thirds of the bone fragment. Total REE concentrations are high and do not vary significantly from the periosteal surface to the medullar surface. Conversely, the remaining one-third of the bone has REE patterns that are MREE-depleted and low in total REE concentrations. REE concentrations in this part of the bone do not vary significantly from the periosteal to the medullar surface. A positive Ce anomaly is found throughout the entire bone, and is greatest within the LREE-enriched portion of the bone. This, in combination with the LREE-enrichment, suggests that the bone fossilized under reducing conditions. The distance between the LREE-enriched and MREE-depleted regions is less than 1 mm. Isotopic and petrographic analyses of the bone and surrounding carbonate matrix suggest the REE patterns in the bone were the result of partial fossilization/incomplete filling of micro-pore spaces around bone crystallites in an environment with changing redox conditions. The lower, MREE-depleted part of the bone fossilized contemporaneously with a pendant cement that formed on the underside of the bone in the vadose zone. Formation of the pendant cement restricted water flow through the bone, isolating the lower portion, which incorporated a MREE-depleted pattern. The upper part of the bone (LREE-enriched side) fossilized under more reducing conditions than the lower part. This resulted in reductive dissolution of minerals (such as hydrous ferric oxides and manganese-oxides) which were LREE-enriched with positive Ce anomalies. These REE were then incorporated into the upper part of the bone. This likely occurred after the bone entered the saturated zone (below the water table). The thinness of the bone and presence of a pendant cement helped facilitate partial fossilization of the bone, preserving the REE signature of an earlier fluid. As demonstrated by this case study, differences in REE patterns within a fossil may record changes in geochemical conditions during fossilization, particularly, when bones are encased in a material that reduces fluid permeability, such as micritic vadose calcite. Analysis of such bones may offer the opportunity to decipher complex fluid histories that occur during fossilization. LA-ICP-MS should be utilized to confirm solution ICP-MS analysis if it yields high REE variability, prior to an interpretation of reworking or time-averaging.     

Sulfur geochemistry of hydrothermal waters in Yellowstone National Park,Wyoming, USA. III. An anion-exchange resin technique for sampling and preservation of sulfoxyanions in natural waters

A sampling protocol for the retention, extraction, and analysis of sulfoxyanions in hydrothermal waters has been developed in the laboratory and tested at Yellowstone National Park and Green Lake, NY. Initial laboratory testing of the anion-exchange resin Bio-Rad™ AG1-X8 indicated that the resin was well suited for the sampling, preservation, and extraction of sulfate and thiosulfate. Synthetic solutions containing sulfate and thiosulfate were passed through AG1-X8 resin columns and eluted with 1 and 3 M KCl, respectively. Recovery ranged from 89 to 100%. Comparison of results for water samples collected from five pools in Yellowstone National Park between on-site IC analysis (U.S. Geological Survey mobile lab) and IC analysis of resin-stored sample at SUNY-Stony Brook indicates 96 to 100% agreement for three pools (Cinder, Cistern, and an unnamed pool near Cistern) and 76 and 63% agreement for two pools (Sulfur Dust and Frying Pan). Attempts to extract polythionates from the AG1-X8 resin were made using HCl solutions, but were unsuccessful. Bio-Rad™ AG2-X8, an anion-exchange resin with weaker binding sites than the AG1-X8 resin, is better suited for polythionate extraction. Sulfate and thiosulfate extraction with this resin has been accomplished with KCl solutions of 0.1 and 0.5 M, respectively. Trithionate and tetrathionate can be extracted with 4 M KCl. Higher polythionates can be extracted with 9 M hydrochloric acid. Polythionate concentrations can then be determined directly using ion chromatographic methods, and laboratory results indicate recovery of up to 90% for synthetic polythionate solutions using AG2-X8 resin columns.     

Controls on clay minerals assemblages in an early paleogene nonmarine succession: Implications for the volcanic and paleoclimatic record of extra-andean patagonia,Argentina

The distribution of the clay minerals of the Banco Negro Inferior-Río Chico Group succession (BNI-RC), a middle Danian–middle Eocene mainly continental epiclastic–pyroclastic succession exposed in the Golfo San Jorge Basin, extra-Andean Patagonia (∼46° LS), is assessed in order to determine the possible origin of clay and specific non-clay minerals using X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy analyses. The control over the clay mineralogy of the sedimentary settings, contemporary volcanism, paleoclimate and weathering conditions is considered. A paleoclimatic reconstruction is provided and correlated with the main global warming events that occurred during the early Paleogene.Mineralogical analyses of BNI-RC demonstrate that smectite and kaolin minerals (kaolinite, halloysite and kaolinite/smectite mixed layers) are the main clay minerals, whereas silica polymorphs (volcanic glass and opal) are common non-clay minerals. Throughout the succession, smectite and kaolin minerals are arranged in different proportions in the three clay–mineral assemblages. These show a general vertical trend in which the smectite-dominated assemblage (S1) is replaced by the smectite-dominated assemblage associated with other clays (S2) and the kaolinite-dominated assemblage (K), and finally by S2 up-section. The detailed micromorphological analysis of the clay and non-clay minerals allows us to establish that the origins of these are by volcanic ash weathering, authigenic and pedogenic, and that different stages in the evolution of mineral transformations have occurred.The supply of labile pyroclastic material from an active volcanic area located to the northwest of the study area could have acted as precursor of the authigenic and volcanogenic minerals of the analyzed succession. Diverse fine-grained lithological facies (muddy and tuffaceous facies) and sedimentary settings (coastal swamp and transitional environments, and different fluvial systems) together with variable climate and weathering conditions controlled the mineralogical transformations and the arrangement of clay–mineral assemblages. The paleoclimatic reconstruction suggests a general warm and humid climate. However, the temporal trend of the clay–mineral assemblages, the ratios between smectite and kaolinite and the micromorphological analysis of clay minerals contrasted with evidence from sedimentological analyses suggest a warm and seasonal climate for the basal part of the unit, a warm and humid climate with a relatively more perennial rainfall regime in the middle part of the unit, and a warm and less humid, probably subhumid, climate up-section. Such a reconstruction makes it possible to establish a correlation with some of the hyperthermal events of the Early Paleogene Global Warming (EPGW) and, consequently, constitute one of the most complete time records of the EPGW in South America.     

Anhydrous partial melting of MORB pyrolite and other peridotite compositions at 10 kbar: Implications for the origin of primitive MORB glasses

Summary Anhydrous partial melting experiments on four peridotite compositions have been conducted at 10 kbar providing a relatively internally consistent set of data on the character of primary melts expected from the oceanic upper mantle in the mid-ocean ridge setting. The four peridotite compositions are: MORB pyrolite (considered to be suitable for the production of primitive (Mg#0.68) MORB glasses at 10 kbar), Hawaiian pyrolite (representative of enriched upper mantle), Tinaquillo lherzolite (representative of more depleted upper mantle), and the spinel lherzolite KLB-1 which is a suitable composition for the production of primitive MORB glasses. The equilibrium liquids were determined by sandwich experiments. The primitive MORB glass DSDP 3-18-7-1 was used in experiments using MORB pyrolite and KLB-1, while a calculated 10 kbar liquid composition fromJaques andGreen (1980) was used in experiments with Hawaiian pyrolite and Tinaquillo lherzolite. The results of the experiments are used to test a 10 kbar melt model for the generation of primitive MORB glasses, which are parental magmas to typical MORB compositions. The melt compositions from the four peridotites studied are significantly different from primitive MORB glasses in major element chemistry and plot away from the field of primitive MORB glasses in the CIPW molecular normative Basalt tetrahedron. The results indicate that primitive MORB glasses are derivative compositions lying on olivine fractionation lines from picritic parents, which themselves are primary magmas at pressures greater than 10 kbar. The results of this study are integrated with previous 10 kbar experimental studies.

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Wasserfreie partielle aufschmelzung von MORB pyrolit und andere peridotit-zusammensetzungen bei 10 kbar: bedeutung für die entstehung primitiver MORB gläser

Zusammenfassung Vier Peridotit-Zusammensetzungen wurden bei 10 kbar unter wasserfreien Bedingungen partiell aufgeschmolzen, und die Ergebnisse mit möglichen primitiven Schmelzen Mittel-Ozeanischer Rücken verglichen.Die folgenden perioditischen Zusammensetzungen wurden untersucht: MORB pyrolite [mögliche Ausgangszusammensetzung für primitive (Mg# > 0.68) MORB-Glaszusammensetzungen bei 10 kbar], Hawaiian pyrolite (representativ für angereicherten Oberen Mantel); Tinaquillo lherzolite (representativ für verarmten' Oberen Mantel) und spinel lherzolite, KLB-1 (im Gleichgewicht mit primitiver MORB-Glaszusammensetzung). Die Schmelzen im Gleichgewicht mit diesen Ausgangszusammensetzungen wurden mittels Sandwich-Experimenten ermittelt.Die primitive MORB-Glaszusammensetzung DSDP 3-18-7-1 wurde mit MORB pyrolite und KLB-1 equilibriert, während eine Modell-Zusammensetzung vonJaques and Green (1980) in Verbindung mit Hawaiian pyrolite und Tinaquillo lherzolite vermischt wurde. Die Resultate der Experimente werden mit einem 10 kbar Aufschmelzungsmodell zur Entstehung primitiver MORB-Gläser verglichen. Die Schmelzen im Gleichgewicht mit den vier Peridotit-Ausgangszusammensetzungen unterscheiden sich wesentlich von primitiven MORB-Gläsern, sowohl hinsichtlich ihrer Hauptelemente als auch ihrer Plot-Parameter im Basalttetraeder. Primitive MORB-Glaszusammensetzungen stellen keine primären Schmelzen dar, sondern sind durch Olivinfraktionierung von primitiven Magmen abzuleiten. Die Resultate dieser Untersuchungen werden mit früheren 10 kbar Experimenten verglichen.

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With 10 Figures     

三论花岗岩按照Sr-Yb的分类:应用

在"再论"中我们提出了花岗岩按照Sr-Yb分类的新标志(张旗等,2010a),本文进一步讨论该分类的应用。文中举了国内外许多实例(包括柴达木、北祁连、内蒙古、松潘-甘孜、大别、太行、华北古元古代和华南新元古代以及土耳其、俄罗斯、巴西、刚果、波西米亚、意大利等),着重讨论了花岗岩Sr和Yb含量与其形成压力和深度的关系,指出本分类最重要的地球动力学意义在于与其形成的深度有关,并在一定条件下与其产出地区的地壳厚度有关。例如应用本方法分析华北克拉通古元古代花岗岩,很难得出该带在古元古代发生过碰撞的结论,华北克拉通是否分为东西两块也需要重新认识。又如对华南新元古代花岗岩的分析表明,华南地块内部在新元古代时地壳较薄,但是,与Rodinia大陆的裂解似乎无关。文中还对花岗岩与成矿的关系进行了讨论,提出成矿与压力有关的概念。如金铜与地壳厚度大的埃达克型和喜马拉雅型花岗岩有关,钨锡与地壳厚度薄的南岭型花岗岩有关,而不论矿床是什么类型的,只要它们与花岗岩有关,必定受矿液源区深度的控制,要么是在加厚地壳的地球动力学背景下,要么是在地壳减薄的地球动力学背景下。花岗岩无比复杂,我们用Sr和Yb两个元素对花岗岩重新进行了分类,只是一个探索性的尝试,问题肯定不少,需要广泛的实践的检验,需要深入的实验研究的检验,需要理论的探讨,需要经过一系列否定-肯定-否定的过程,才能逐渐臻于完善。     

High-pressure phase equilibria and element partitioning experiments on Apollo 15 green C picritic glass: Implications for the role of garnet in the deep lunar interior

We report results of nominally anhydrous near-liquidus experiments on a synthetic analog to very low-titanium Apollo 15 green C lunar picritic glass from ∼2 to 5 GPa. Apollo 15 green C glass (A15C) is saturated with garnet and pyroxene on the liquidus at ∼3 GPa. However, such an assemblage is unlikely to represent the lunar-mantle source region for this glass, and instead an olivine + orthopyroxene-dominated source is favored, in accord with earlier lower-pressure experiments on A15C. Near-liquidus garnet has a slight but significant majorite component at ∼5 GPa in this iron-rich bulk composition, as expected from our previous work in ordinary-chondritic bulk compositions. Ion microprobe measurements of partitioning of Sr, Ba, Sc, Nd, Sm, Dy, Yb, Y, Zr, Hf, and Th between garnet and coexisting melt in these experiments are the first garnet partition coefficients (D values) available that are directly relevant to lunar compositions. D values for these garnets differ significantly compared to D values for garnets grown in more magnesian, terrestrial bulk compositions, which until now are all that have been available in modeling the possible role of garnet in the lunar interior. For example, D values for heavy rare earth elements are lower than are those from terrestrial basaltic systems. These partitioning values are well-described by the lattice-strain partitioning model, but predictive relationships for garnet partitioning using that model fail to match the measured values, as was the case in our earlier work on chondritic compositions. Using our new D values in place of the “terrestrial” values in a variety of models of lunar petrogenesis, we suggest that garnet is unlikely to be present in the source regions for very titanium-poor lunar liquids despite its appearance on the liquidus of A15C.     

Geological interpretation of Bouguer gravity and aeromagnetic data from the Gobi-desert covered area,Eastern Tianshan,China: Implications for porphyry Cu-Mo polymetallic deposits exploration

In this study, Bouguer gravity and aeromagnetic data have been used to better understand the geology and mineral resources near the late Carboniferous-late Permian porphyry Cu-Mo polymetallic mineralization in the Chinese Eastern Tianshan belt, which is extensively covered by Gobi-desert. The reduced-to-pole (RTP) transformation of regional-scale aeromagnetic data shows that the porphyry Cu-Mo deposit is within a cluster of magnetic anomaly highs that overprint on a northeast trending magnetic gradient belt generally along the crustal-scale Kanguertag-Huangshan fault. The 10 km upward continuation transformation of both Bouguer gravity and aeromagnetic data indicates that the known porphyry Cu-Mo polymetallic deposits are located on the flanks of prominent gravity and magnetic anomaly highs. These anomalies are spatially correlated with the late Carboniferous-late Permian igneous rocks and in the Tuwu-Yandong mineralization district are centered over the granodiorite rocks genetically related to porphyry copper systems. In order to minimize interpretational ambiguities, a useful approach that is correlation analysis (CA) based on correlation coefficient (CC) given by gravity and magnetic data was employed to separate positively and negatively correlated anomalies features. The CA procedure is applied to 10 km upward continuation transformation of both Bouguer gravity and RTP transformed aeromagnetic data for mapping correlative magnetization and density contrast anomalies from deep sources, which may be associated with the porphyry Cu-Mo polymetallic mineralization. Five prominent CC positive anomalies have been found in the southern margin of Dananhu-Tousuquan arc. Those anomalies zones could be interpreted to reflect a late Carboniferous-late Permian magmatic belt that is favorable for additional discoveries of late Carboniferous to late Permian porphyry copper systems in north region of Eastern Tianshan.