Evaluation of rock excavatability and slope stability along a segment of motorway,Pozanti, Turkey

The Çiftehan-Pozant segment of the Ankara-Pozant motorway is problematic due to the existence of lithological units with variable character. Seven cut slopes are planned along Km 358+000– Km 364+350 of the proposed motorway. The purpose of this study is to determine engineering geological properties of the rocks exposed along the motorway and to assess the excavatability and stability of the cut slopes. Both field and laboratory studies were carried out during this study. Field studies involved geological mapping, detailed discontinuity surveying and sampling. Laboratory tests were carried out to determine unit weight, point load strength index and shear strength parameters of the discontinuities. In the study area, recrystallized limestone, microgabbro, conglomerate and Quaternary deposits are exposed. However, the cut slopes are located within microgabbro and conglomerate. Hard to very hard ripping with local blasting for the fresh inner part of the rocks is recommended for the excavatability. In two cut slopes wedge failure is expected, whereas in another two slopes both wedge and toppling failures are likely to occur. Based on the field observations and stability analyses of the cut slopes, slope flattening with various angles, wire mesh, and drainage ditches are proposed.     

水位波动下非饱和心墙土坝体的渗流和稳定性

基于Richards方程,对坝体的饱和-非饱和渗流场进行了模拟,再根据饱和-非饱和渗流场和非饱和土抗剪强度公式,对坝体的稳定性进行了分析。结果表明,水位骤降过程中坝体的安全系数通常呈现先缓慢增加后迅速减小的变化过程,分析坝体失稳时塑性区和位移场发现,水位下降的初期,坝体左侧坡体的安全系数要低于坝体右侧坡体,但水位下降到一定程度,右侧坡体的安全系数迅速减小,并先于左侧坡体失稳;采用有限元强度折减法用于多坡面边坡稳定分析时,只能获得最小安全系数的包络线;心墙具有隔水防渗的作用,对水位变化渗流具有阻尼作用。     

Assessment of excavatability,abrasivity and slope stability in a sandstone quarry in Istanbul,Turkey

The Cebeci region is characterized by outcrops of Carboniferous sandstone, including diabase dykes. This region is very important area for aggregate production in Istanbul, Turkey. The aim of this study is to determine the engineering geological properties of sandstones to assess the excavatability, abrasivity and stability of cut slopes in a quarry site. Firstly, the sandstone samples were used to determine their petrographical and mineralogical characteristics. Then, physico-mechanical tests were performed on these samples. In order to determine rock mass properties, scan-line surveys were performed, and the major orientations of discontinuities were analyzed through the stereographic projection technique. Kinematical analyses were also made to determine the potential failures at the quarry site. According to the results obtained, excavatability is changed from easy ripping to hard ripping on sandstones; the carbonated sandstone is less abrasive than other sandstones. Based on the field studies and stability analyses of the cut slopes, optimum slope geometry and necessary support measures, such as wire mesh and rock fall barriers, are suggested.     

Evaluation of the environmental impacts of extreme floods in the Evros River basin using Contingent Valuation Method

India is among the top ten countries with the highest percentage of landslide fatalities for the past few years. Intense rainfall during the 2009 monsoon in the hilly district of Nilgiris, in the state of Tamilnadu in India, triggered landslides at more than 300 locations which affected road and rail traffic, destroyed buildings, caused the death of more than 40 people and left hundreds homeless. In this paper, three case histories from Nilgiris district are investigated: the slope failure of a railway track at Aravankadu, failure of retaining walls supporting buildings at Coonoor, failure of the slope and retaining wall along national highway (NH67) at Chinnabikatty. Laboratory investigations are carried out on soil samples collected at these sites. Soils at all the three locations have high fine content and low values of coefficient of permeability. Finite element analyses of all the three case histories were carried out using PLAXIS2D software in order to understand the failure mechanism and contributing factors. Slope stability analysis using strength reduction technique is carried out for the slope at Aravankadu to determine the critical slip surface and factor of safety. Results reveal that the increase in pore pressures led to a reduction in shear strength of the soil and consequently resulted in progressive failure of slope at Aravankadu site. Displacement analysis is carried out for Coonoor and Chinnabikatty sites. The results show that combined effect of surcharge load of building and high pore pressure led to intense shearing behind the retaining walls at Coonoor site. Results indicate occurrence of large displacements along the face and at toe of the slope at Chinnabikatty site.     

Stability investigation of hill cut soil slopes along National highway 222 at Malshej Ghat,Maharashtra

The section of about 12 km of National highway 222 passing through the Malshej Ghat experience frequent slope failure due to complex geological condition, heavy rainfall and slope geometry. The area is part of Western Ghat Deccan trap and slope masses are made of basalt and its weathered crust (debris/soil). The soil slope failure problem mainly occur in rainy seasons due to induced pore water pressure and reduced strength of the slope mass. The present study has been carried out to investigate the slope forming material and assess the stability of soil slopes by numerical approach. For the identification of the vulnerable zones, field study has been carried out and five vulnerable soil slopes identified namely MGS1, MGS2, MGS3, MGS4 and MGS5 on the basis of degree of weathering and slope geometry. The laboratory experiments were carried out to determine the strength properties of the geomaterials. All the input variables acquired from the field and laboratory experiments have been used for numerical simulation, which was performed with the help of limit equilibrium method (LEM) and finite element method (FEM). Numerical analysis provides understanding of the slope behaviour and illustrates that MGS1 and MGS3 are stable slopes, MGS2 and MGS4 are critically stable, whereas, slope MGS5 is unstable. This study recommend the protection of soil slopes and suggest that more detailed investigation is required for long term remedial measures to prevent risk of damage in Malshej Ghat.     

Rock mass rating and Kinematic analysis for slope stability investigation of Utari dam,Lalitpur district,Uttar Pradesh

Rock mass characterization of Utari dam in Lalitpur district of Uttar Pradesh was done to identify different stability classes of rock mass. For better stability of Utari dam, foundation conditions were carefully studied by detailed field investigations of the site supplemented by laboratory tests. During feasibility and preliminary stages, rock mass characterization of slopes was conducted to identify the vulnerable zones of failure. Rock mass characterization was done by compilation of information obtained from intact rock as well as from rock mass to determine its grade and long term slope stability of the site. On the basis of Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and Geological Strength Index (GSI) slope stability is identified which lies under good quality rock mass. Kinematic analysis was conducted to find out the probability for different types of structurally controlled slope failure. Microscopic analyses were conducted to identify the degree of chemical alteration of feldspar. Clay formation by sericitization along joint planes is harmful for the stability of dam structure. Remedial measures must be taken to reduce the extent of chemical alteration. Granitoids at dam site forms a compact and stable foundation consisting of four sets of joints in which two sets were prominent which are dipping on the upstream side of the dam which reveals good condition on the dam site as leakage from reservoir will be minimum and least up-thrust on the dam structure.     

大型反倾库岸岩体变形过程及破坏机制数值模拟

随着边坡地质结构、地层岩性和诱发因素的不同,反倾岩体的主控变形破坏模式都会发生改变。金沙江龙蟠边坡岩体主要为反倾向千板岩和砂岩互层状结构,坡脚河床深厚覆盖层构成了边坡的软弱支座。本文运用离散单元法模拟了大型反倾库岸岩体在漫长的地质历史时期中的变形演化过程,并基于反倾岩体变形的时效性观点,引入强度折减法分析边坡在不同阶段的剪切屈服区扩展情况及相应的稳定性状态。结论表明龙蟠边坡变形岩体是重力弯曲蠕变为主导的成因机制,并归纳提出了软基效应和互层效应共同作用下的大规模反倾岩体的累进性剪切破坏模式,俗称龙蟠模式。     

Study of the Engineering Geological Problems of the Havasan Dam,with Emphasis on Clay-Filled Joints in the Right Abutment

Havasan dam site is located in northwest of Iran. The planned concrete dam is to be built on Cretaceous limestone. Faulted and fractured limestone is exposed at the dam abutments and in the reservoir area. Rock mass properties including the deformation modulus and uniaxial compressive strength were calculated using different rock mass classification systems (RMR, Q, GSI and DMR). Laboratory tests indicate that joint filling materials contain clay with low to high plasticity (CL to CH) and low to medium potential swelling pressures. X-ray diffraction analysis confirms that the reason for potential swelling of joint fillings is the existence of clay minerals (such as illite and montmorillonite). The study results about the shear strength of clay-filled joints show that under JRC–JCS condition (laboratory scale), JRC _n –JCS _n (large scale) and normal stress equal to 0.25–4 MPa, the range of shear strength of clay-filled joints will be equal to 0.2–2.17 and 0.14–1.72 MPa. In some areas dissolution along the joints results in high permeability, especially in the right abutment. Three dominant joint sets occur in the exploration galleries which have been excavated in the right abutment. The maximum aperture of these joints varies from 7 to 9 cm, and the joints are typically filled with clay. Preliminary analysis shows that the presence of open joints which will cause seepage of water, combined with the impact of the clay-filled joints and forces acting on the slopes, could lead to slope failures and rock falls. In addition, the assessment of slope stability results in abutments using limited equilibrium method and Swedge software under dynamic and static conditions shows that two wedges formed on the slopes of the abutment by the natural joints are potentially unstable. The rock wedge on the left abutment is smaller but presents higher sliding potential. In addition, there is no probability of planar failure due to the geological condition of the dam abutments. This paper summarizes the site investigation and subsequent analysis, which resulted in a recommendation not to construct this site. We offer some potential mitigation plans to consider if a dam were to be built at this site.     

Finite element modeling approach to assess the stability of debris and rock slopes: a case study from the Indian Himalayas

Landslides and slope failures are recurrent phenomena in the Indian Himalayas. The study area comprises the hill slopes along a road stretch of 1.5 km at a distance of 9 km from Pipalkoti on Chamoli–Badrinath highway (NH-58) in the Garhwal Himalayas, India. Based on the field survey, contour map, and the hillshade, the study area has been divided into different zones. Three different zones/slopes in this study area including one potential debris slide, one stable debris slope, and one potential rock slide have been undertaken for investigation and modeling. Field mapping, data collection related to slope features and soil/rock sample collection, and discontinuity mapping for all the slopes have been carried out in field. Soil samples have been tested in the laboratory to determine the physico-mechanical properties. These properties along with some material properties from the literature have been used as input parameters for the numerical simulation. To investigate the failure process in the debris/rock slides as well as stable debris slope, the slopes were modeled as a continuum using 2D finite element plain strain approach. Shear strength reduction analysis was performed to determine the critical strength reduction factor. The computed deformations and the stress distributions, along the failure surface, have been compared with the field observations and found to be in good agreement. The analysis results indicated rock/debris slide slopes to be highly unstable. The debris slide modeling depicted failures both above and below road levels as observed in field. The rock slide modeling could depict the exact pattern of failure involving 3 sets of discontinuities simultaneously as observed in real-field scenario which is a major limitation in case of limit equilibrium analysis. The field-observed stable slope comes to be stable through FE analysis also. Based on these analyses, landslide hazard assessment of the study area could be done.     

Rock slope stability assessment using finite element based modelling – examples from the Indian Himalayas

Numerical modelling of rock slides is a versatile approach to understand the failure mechanism and the dynamics of rock slopes. Finite element slope stability analysis of three rock slopes in Garhwal Himalaya, India has been carried out using a two dimensional plane strain approach. Two different modelling techniques have been attempted for this study. Firstly, the slope is represented as a continuum in which the effect of discontinuities is considered by reducing the properties and strength of intact rock to those of rock mass. The equivalent Mohr-Coulomb shear strength parameters of generalised Hoek-Brown (GHB) criterion and modified Mohr-Coulomb (MMC) criterion has been used for this continuum approach. Secondly, a combined continuum-interface numerical method has been attempted in which the discontinuities are represented as interface elements in between the rock walls. Two different joint shear strength models such as Barton-Bandis and Patton’s model are used for the interface elements. Shear strength reduction (SSR) analysis has been carried out using a finite element formulation provided in the PHASE². For blocky or very blocky rock mass structure combined continuum-interface model is found to be the most suitable one, as this model is capable of simulating the actual field scenario.     

水库边坡稳定的可靠度分析

根据水库边坡的勘察资料,确定了边坡稳定性分析的力学模型,推导了滑面面积的计算公式,采用不平衡推力传递法进行了边坡稳定的定值法分析和可靠度分析。可靠度分析中,分别讨论了滑面强度参数及几何参数的变异性对边坡稳定性的影响。计算结果表明,不考虑参数变异性的定值法分析结果所得边坡的安全系数过高,偏于危险。水库边坡的可靠度分析结果表明：滑面几何参数的变异性对边坡稳定的可靠指标或失效概率影响很大。因此,对于岩质边坡的稳定性分析,不仅要重视研究滑面强度参数的变异性,也要重视研究滑面几何参数的变异性。     

Evaluation of rock slope stability for Yujian River dam site by kinematic and block theory analyses

Lithological information, rock mass fracture data and discontinuity shear strength obtained through field investigations have been used to conduct kinematic and block theory analyses for the rock slopes that exist in the dam site to evaluate the stability of the slopes. The analyses were performed using mean discontinuity set orientations for each rock mass region under gravitational loading to calculate the maximum safe slope angles (MSSA) for different cut slope directions. Results show that final MSSAs obtained from kinematic analysis are less than or equal to that obtained from block theory analysis. The following conclusions have been made based on the block theory analysis results, which are closer to the reality: (1) The final MSSA range between 30° and 47°, 44° and 70°, 47° and 69° for cut slope dip directions of 20–30°, 105–210°, and 270–355°, respectively; (2) For cut slope dip directions of 20–30°, 200–210° and 275–315°, wide ranges of values have been obtained for the final MSSA reflecting the influence of variability of fracture orientations on MSSA; (3) Apart from the region R-d-1 for slope dip directions in the range 20–30°, rest of the regions at the dam site seem to be stable for slope angles less than 40°. Detailed comparisons are given between the kinematic and block theory analyses covering both the theoretical concepts and application results. Also a brief comparison is included between the laboratory and in situ discontinuity shear strength results.     

顺向岩质高边坡分级开挖的变形破坏特征研究

以岩质高边坡的野外调查成果为基础,分析了边坡的岩体结构特征和控制边坡稳定性的主要地质要素,依据自然边坡的变形破坏现状定性分析,预测边坡开挖过程中可能出现的宏观变形破坏模式和特征.利用基于有限差分原理的FLAC3D建立坝肩边坡的地质模型,对工程边坡开挖支护过程进行数值法定量研究,得出了工程边坡开挖过程中的应力、位移变化规律和边坡岩体破坏特征.研究成果为苗家坝水电站左坝肩的分级开挖施工提供了依据.     

Geotechnical characterization of lignite-bearing horizons in the Afsin-Elbistan lignite basin, SE Turkey

The Afsin-Elbistan lignite deposit, with its 3.4 billion metric tons of reserves, is the biggest lignite basin and one of the most important resources for electrical energy production in Turkey. Kislakoy mining field was selected as the first opencast mine to feed four power station blocks of 300 MW each. Slope instability has been a continuing problem in the Kislakoy opencast mine. Particularly complex failures along a noncircular failure surface appearing at the final slope stage and covering large areas in the mine increase the importance of slope stability. This study outlines the geotechnical characteristics of the lignite-bearing horizons and describes the causes and mechanisms of slope instabilities, which threaten the safety of the mine. Quantitative X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were carried out using an interactive data processing system (SIROQUANT™) based on Rietveld interpretation methods. Parametric slope stability analysis and backanalysis were carried out for the failure that occurred at the northwestern final slope stage of the mine. The Spencer-Wright limiting state equilibrium method was used in order to determine with confidence the most representative values of regional shear strength parameters, to explain the failure mechanism, and to assess the conditions at the time of failure. In the analysis, phreatic and piezometric surfaces were considered.Site observations and numerous backanalyses of the slope failure reveal that a compound slide occurred where gyttja (contact zone) layers rest directly on the lignite. Gyttja (contact zone) contains the weakest material within the system. The analysis showed that the main cause of the northwestern slope instability was the presence of the groundwater flow within a Quaternary aquifer (through buried valleys), reducing the effective shear strength of the slope materials. It is also noted from backanalysis that the gyttja (contact zone) layer presents a shear strength at, or approaching, the residual value at the time of failure.     

Stability analysis of laterally confined slope lying on inclined bedding plane

A stability analysis of a laterally confined slope model, lying on an inclined bedding plane, was presented to evaluate the lateral shear resistance by considering the loading paths and failure envelopes. Two slope models were prepared on a bedding plane by compaction, one with and one without lateral confinement. The compacted models are related to the geological conditions at shallow depths where brittle deformation can occur and an excavation can induce horizontal field stress that significantly influences the stability of the slope. Three distinct loading paths, controlled by either tilting the angles or increasing the surcharge loads, were applied to achieve the failure of the slope models. Rankine’s passive earth pressure due to compaction was reduced by the shear strength reduction ratio. The shear strength reduction ratio was estimated through the least-squares fitting method based on the results of model tests at failure when the loading paths intersected the failure envelope. Provided that the effect of lateral confinement in a rock mass can be described by the shear strength reduction ratio, the proposed equations will be beneficial for slope stability analyses of laterally confined slopes on bedding planes. A case study of an undercut pit wall in an open-pit mine was demonstrated by showing that the unknown shear strength reduction ratio can be back-analyzed from the rainfall-induced landslide case. Therefore, the design of other undercut slopes with different geometries and groundwater conditions in the rock mass, which have undergone the same geological process as the back-analyzed case, is possible.

     

白鹤滩水电站左岸坝肩开挖边坡稳定性分析

白鹤滩水电站左岸坝基边坡地质构造错综复杂,坡内多条陡倾断层和顺坡向错动带是控制边坡稳定性的主要因素。结合现场地质资料、监测数据及勘察认识,利用通用离散元软件UDEC建立左岸边坡开挖变形分析模型。首先在无支护开挖工况下研究主要结构面F17、LS331、LS3319上下盘岩体关键点应力及位移变化,并指出潜在失稳破坏区;同时采用预应力锚索单元在不同施工时序下对潜在不稳定块体进行加固计算,对比研究了不同方案下左岸边坡的变形破坏机制和整体稳定性。计算结果和现场监测表明：左岸边坡变形破坏与结构面密切相关,在开挖卸荷作用下主要表现为沿错动带的压剪破坏和陡倾断层的张拉破坏,采用预应力锚索加固处理能够有效提高边坡稳定性,并且在开挖后及时跟进支护可以有效抑制边坡剪切变形。研究结果对白鹤滩左岸坝基边坡后续工程加固和施工工序具有一定的参考价值。     

Modeling uncertainty in stability analysis for design of embankment dams on difficult foundations

A probabilistic 3-D slope stability analysis model (PTDSSAM) is developed to evaluate the stability of embankment dams and their foundations under conditions of staged construction taking into consideration uncertainty, spatial variabilities and correlations of shear strength parameters, as well as the uncertainties in pore water pressure. The model has the following capabilities: (1) conducting undrained shear strength analysis (USA) and effective stress analysis (ESA) slope stability analysis of staged construction, (2) incorporation of field monitored data of pore water pressure, and (3) incorporation of increase of undrained shear strength with depth, effective stress, and pore water pressure dissipation. The PTDSSAM model is incorporated in a computer program that can analyze slopes located in multilayered deposits, considering the total slope width.

The main outputs of the program are the geometric parameters of the most critical sliding surface (i.e., center of rotation/radius of rotation and critical width of failure), mean 2-D safety factor, mean 3-D safety factor, squared coefficient of variation of resisting moment, and the probability of slope failure. The program is applied to a case study, Karameh dam in Jordan. Monitored data of induced pore water pressure in the dam embankment and soft foundation were gathered during dam construction.

The stability of Karameh dam embankment and foundation was evaluated during staged construction using deterministic and probabilistic analysis. Foundation stability was evaluated based on the monitored data of pore water pressure.

The study showed that the mean values of the corrective factors which account for the discrepancies between the in situ and laboratory-measured values of soil properties and for the modeling errors have significant influence on the 2-D safety factor, 3-D safety factor, slope probability of failure, and on the expected failure width.

The degree of spatial correlation associated with shear strength parameters within a soil deposit also influences the probability of slope failure and the expected failure width. This correlation is quantified by scale of fluctuation. It is found that a larger scale of fluctuation gives an increase in the probability of slope failure and a reduction in the critical failure width.     

Characteristics of Singapore Marine Clay at Changi

Singapore marine clay at Changi is a quartenary deposit that lies within valleys cut in the Old Alluvium. It is locally known as Kallang formation. The pre-reclamation site characterization and laboratory testing was carried out by conducting marine sampling boreholes, in situ dissipation tests and field vane test. In situ dissipation tests were conducted with the piezocone, flat dilatometer, self-boring pressuremeter and BAT permeameter. The purpose of the site characterization was to determine the consolidation characteristics, strength characteristics, stratigraphy, and mineralogy of Singapore marine clay. The consolidation properties of marine clay are required prior to land reclamation activities in order to predict the magnitude and rates of settlement with the expected fill load and future service load as well as for the design of soil improvement works. The shear strength properties are required for slope stability analyses during reclamation and for the stability analyses of shore protection works. Clay mineralogy tests and photographic identification of the marine clay was carried out to determine the mineralogical properties and to visually record the marine clay colour and texture.     

强度折减DDA方法及其在稳定分析中的应用

在自行研制的非连续变形分析（discontinuous deformation analysis,DDA）程序中实现了自动强度折减法以模拟边坡的稳定性和安全系数。通过锦屏高边坡和某重力坝深层滑动的计算分析以及与刚体极限平衡法和有限元方法的比较研究可以看出,强度折减DDA法可以较高精度求出岩石高边坡的安全系数,但求得的重力坝深层抗滑稳定安全系数要低于刚体极限平衡法的结果。基于强度折减技术的DDA与FEM的耦合方法,可以较准确地求出重力坝深层抗滑稳定安全系数。     

基于离散元法的节理岩体边坡稳定性分析

节理岩体边坡的稳定性在很大程度上取决于节理的强度及其分布形式。由于节理岩体边坡的失稳破坏具有大变形和非连续的特点,因此,离散单元法成为研究节理岩体边坡破坏机制的最有效方法之一。通过采用离散元软件PFC2D进行数值模拟,对完整岩石及节理的力学性能进行研究,并建立含密集节理的岩体边坡模型,讨论了节理连通率对边坡破坏形式的影响。结果表明,节理岩体边坡的失稳破坏是一个渐进的过程;在多组节理密集分布的岩体边坡中,连通率越大,其稳定性越差;随着连通率的减小,边坡的破坏形式由大范围的滑坡转变为局部崩塌的形式