Establishing rates of karst landscape evolution in the Tropics: a context for the formation of archaeological sites in western Flores,Indonesia

Tropical landscapes evolve at a rapid rate, creating stepped alluvial terraces, dense basin and cone topographies and multilevel cave systems. An understanding of the rate of landscape evolution is crucial for understanding how landscapes respond to tectonic instability and for reconstructing landscapes that have changed over archaeological timescales. The rate of landscape incision as a proxy for karst landscape evolution in Indonesia, a key region in the path of human dispersal, has been established using the rate of karstification – by estimating a chronology for stages of cave development using thermal ionisation mass spectrometry U‐series dating on flowstones, and the rate of downcutting – by establishing a chronology for a series of alluvial terraces using red thermoluminescence dating. Using these techniques we have determined that the estimated rate of karstification (113 ± 26 mm ka^?1) is slower than the average rate of downcutting (305 ± 24 mm ka^?1), and the combined rate of landscape incision (217 ± 18 mm ka^?1) is slower than the known rate of tectonic uplift for this region derived from raised coral terraces (450 ± 50 mm ka^?1). This suggests that rivers are quicker to respond to tectonic instability, but both cave and river systems display a slower rate of incision and karstification than uplift. Correlations between these components of the landscape system reveal a strong, interacting relationship where defined phases of uplift are reflected in the pattern of karstification and cycles of downcutting. An understanding of this relationship has been pivotal in reconstructing the formation and geomorphic history of archaeological caves such as Liang Bua. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Petrography and geochemistry of Jumara Dome sediments,Kachchh Basin: Implications for provenance,tectonic setting and weathering intensity

In the Kachchh Mainland, the Jumara Dome mixed carbonate-siliciclastic succession is represented by the Jhurio and Patcham formations and siliciclastic-dominating Chari Formation （Bathonian to Oxfordian）. The Ju- mara Dome sediments were deposited during sea-level fluctuating, and were interrupted by storms in the shallow marine environment. The sandstones are generally medium-grained, moderately sorted, subangular to subrounded and of low sphericity. The sandstones are mineralogically mature and mainly composed of quartzarenite and subar- kose. The plots of petrofacies in the Qt-F-L, Qm-F-Lt, Qp-Lv-Ls and Qm-P-K ternary diagrams suggest mainly the basement uplift source （craton interior） in rifted continental margin basin setting. The sandstones were cemented by carbonate, iron oxide and silica overgrowth. The Chemical Index of Alteration values （73% sandstone and 81% shale） indicate high weathering conditions in the source area. Overall study suggests that such strong chemical weathering conditions are of unconformity with worldwide humid and warm climates during the Jurassic period. Positive correlations between A1203 and Fe203, TiO2, Na20, MgO, K20 are evident. A high correlation coefficient between A1203 and K20 in shale samples suggests that clay minerals control the major oxides, The analogous con- tents of Si, A1, Ti, LREE and TTE in the shale to PAAS with slightly depleted values of other elements ascribe a PAAS like source （granitic gneiss and minor mafics） to the present study. The petrographic and geochemical data strongly suggest that the studied sandstones/shales were deposited on a passive margin of the stable intracratonic basin.     

Cenozoic landscape evolution in central Queensland

Central Queensland lies on the passive margin of eastern Australia and owes its landscape to processes that began following rifting and opening of the Tasman Sea. The modern landscape is the result of long-term processes of landform development, and the landforms themselves are the evidence of these processes. Hence, interpreting their significance provides an understanding of long-term landscape evolution. Along the eastern Australian coast, numerous rivers drain into the sea but among these, there are two that stand out: the neighbouring Fitzroy and Burdekin Rivers in central Queensland. These two streams have by far the largest catchments of any rivers along the eastern seaboard of Australia. The Burdekin and Fitzroy catchments contain widespread remnants of Cenozoic deposits, which accumulated predominantly in fluvial and lacustrine environments established during the Palaeogene. Alluvial sediments were supplied by erosion of nearby uplands, and accumulated in depressions and basins on a prior land surface. Volcanic activity also resulted in large lava flows in central western areas. Water was the main agent of sediment transport, distributing unconsolidated deposits along the drainage networks of the time, some of which were directed inland. It is inferred that during the Palaeogene, the divide between coastward and inland draining streams was further to the east than it is at present. Several basins were located west of the former coastal divide, and were characterised by continental environments of deposition in a generally westward drainage system. With continued accumulation of sediments, individual basins overflowed and merged to form a widespread flat-lying Palaeogene landscape that concealed an earlier land surface on which bedrock was more extensive. In the Early Cenozoic, there was a change from the depositional phase that resulted in the continental sequence, to an erosional phase that developed the modern landforms. The change from deposition to erosion probably started during the Palaeogene. Erosion continued through to the present, re-exposing parts of the basal Palaeogene sequence and earlier Mesozoic land surface. The erosional phase that shaped the landforms of the modern Burdekin and Fitzroy catchments can be explained by slowly evolving drainage basins in the interior being captured by small coastal streams—the predecessors of the Burdekin and Fitzroy Rivers. The coastal streams were short and steep in comparison with those in the interior, allowing a more active erosional environment along the coast. As the coastal streams expanded, the drainage divide moved rapidly westwards. Stream capture began a phase of regional erosion, which transported large quantities of sediments to the coast. The sediments contributed to coastal and nearshore features similar to the Holocene high sea-level examples at the mouth of the Burdekin River in the north, and the Fitzroy Delta and the Keppel Coast in the south. Large volumes of sediments were also transported beyond the present coast during low sea-levels of the Cenozoic, forming similar coastal features and contributing to a major eastward bulge on the central Queensland continental shelf. The emptying of continental basins has paralleled the development of the continental shelf bulge from the coast to the Marion Plateau.     

常山港流域岩性对地貌演化的控制

地貌形态是构造活动、气候变化和地表过程相互作用的结果。在构造活跃地区,控制地貌演化的因素已有大量讨论,而在构造沉寂地区,相关研究却相对缺乏。常山港是钱塘江南源,其流域盆地位于扬子地块东南缘。新生代以来区内构造运动并不活跃,岩性、地貌较为复杂,河流网络显示出非稳态特征。文章以常山港流域为研究对象,探讨构造沉寂地区控制地貌演化的因素,并使用积分方法对常山港流域进行地貌分析,提取出河道参数X以及河道标准化陡峭指数（k_sn）,进而从X图中提取出河道裂点与河道k_sn的空间分布,将其与区域内的断裂分布进行比较。结果显示,河道裂点和河道k_sn与断裂无显著关系,现今常山港流域范围内构造活动性弱,但众多河流裂点的出现说明地貌演化尚未达到稳定状态。河道k_sn空间分布与岩性单元分布的对比结果显示,河道k_sn与岩性差异显著相关,表明岩性是现今控制常山港流域地貌演化的主要因素。

     

Isostatic constraints on the central Victorian lower crust: Implications for the tectonic evolution of the Lachlan Fold Belt

Interpretation and 2‐D forward modelling of aeromagnetic datasets from the Olary Domain to the north of the outcropping Kalabity Inlier, South Australia, is consistent with a buried structural architecture characterised by isolated anticlines (also referred to as growth anticlines) bounded by steeply dipping reverse faults. The isolated anticlines are interpreted to have formed by half‐graben inversion during crustal shortening associated with the ca 1600–1580 Ma Olarian Orogeny. We interpret the bounding reverse faults as reactivated high‐angle normal faults, originating from a listric extensional fault architecture. As shortening increased, ‘break‐back bypass’ and ‘short‐cut‘ thrusts developed because of buttressing of the hangingwall successions against the footwall. The resulting architecture resembles a combination of a thrust‐related imbricate fan and an accumulation of inverted basins. Using this structural architecture, synrift sediments proximal to interpreted normal faults were identified as prospective for sediment‐hosted massive sulfide Pb–Zn–Ag mineralisation.     

华容隆起及周缘第四纪构造-沉积特征与演化

第四纪华容隆起位于江汉—洞庭盆地中带。通过地表地质调查和钻孔资料对华容隆起及周缘第四纪构造-沉积特征与演化进行了研究。华容隆起总体呈EW向展布,北接江汉盆地,南与洞庭盆地安乡凹陷和沅江凹陷相邻,总体轮廓大致受到北面的EW向石首断裂、南西面的NW向南县—黄山头断裂、东面的NNE向砖桥断裂等正断裂所控制。隆起周缘凹陷第四纪各时代地层(冲积和湖积)发育较齐全。隆起内部低洼区及山地区边缘不同程度发育早更新世晚期—全新世沉积,其他地区分布前第四纪基岩或残坡积物。根据地貌、边界断裂、第四纪沉积以及前第四纪基岩分布等,重塑华容隆起和周缘第四纪构造升降活动、沉积和剥蚀特征及演化过程。第四纪初华容隆起内部因先期剥蚀切割而形成原始地貌分异。早更新世早期隆起周边断裂开始伸展活动,江汉盆地、安乡凹陷与沅江凹陷构造沉降并接受沉积,华容隆起遭受风化剥蚀。早更新世晚期—中更新世中期周边断裂继续伸展活动,华容隆起与周缘凹陷均构造沉降,前者沉降幅度较小而相对抬升。华容隆起内低洼地区及周缘凹陷接受沉积,期间在早更新世末有过构造抬升而受到剥蚀。中更新世晚期华容隆起及周边凹陷整体抬升并遭受剥蚀与网纹化,期间有过构造稳定时期并在华容—砖桥主隆起区的边缘形成河流与滨湖沉积。晚更新世区域构造较稳定,于主隆起边缘和外围平原形成冲、湖积。晚更新世末区域海平面大幅下降,导致华容隆起及周缘地区遭受剥蚀。全新世受海平面上升影响,周缘凹陷及隆起内部低洼地带形成河湖相堆积。受先期高地势控制,华容隆起主体、南部的南山次隆以及西部团山次隆局部地区等第四纪期间一直遭受风化剥蚀,部分地区形成较大规模的残坡积。受江汉—洞庭盆地整体沉降控制,华容隆起第四纪期间总体表现为明显的构造沉降。     

塔北中新生代构造演化与砂岩型铀成矿作用关系——来自磷灰石裂变径迹的证据

塔里木盆地北部萨瓦甫齐及塔里克地区4个样品的磷灰石裂变径迹测年以及热史反演结果显示,两个地区的隆升时代不同,其中萨瓦甫齐地区裂变径迹年龄为3．5～3．9Ma,而塔里克地区的裂变径迹年龄为53～59Ma。热史分析揭示出岩体至少记录了自晚白垩世以来的3个显著冷却阶段。同时,结合前人对塔北中新生代隆升剥蚀研究结果,重点对塔北地区中新生代构造隆升阶段进行了详细研究与划分,结合新疆中新生代砂岩型铀成矿年龄,提出了对塔北地区中新生代构造演化与砂岩型铀成矿作用的新认识。     

The post-glacial landscape evolution of the North German Basin: morphology, neotectonics and crustal deformation

The recent evolution of the north German Basin (NGB), which is presently a low-seismic area, was partly affected by glacial loading and unloading of the ice masses. Major stresses acting within the NGB are induced by the North-Atlantic ridge push, the ongoing Alpine collision, and the post-glacial rebound of Fennoscandia. Present-day horizontal stresses within the NGB are directed generally NW–SE, but fan and bend north of 52°N towards NNE. Major basement faults are directed NW–SE, minor faults NE–SW and NNE–SSW, and are clearly detectable in geomorphological and satellite lineaments. Furthermore, the drainage pattern and the distribution of lakes in northern Germany follow exactly block boundaries and, hence, mark zones of present-day subsidence. The understanding of the post-glacial morphology and reactivation of faults requires a view into the very heterogeneous crust and upper mantle below the NGB. The re-adjustment of the individual fault blocks during post-glacial relaxation of the lithosphere leads to differential, crust-dependent uplift and, probably, to the formation of Urstrom valleys. The Urstrom valleys and terminal moraines in northern Germany appear to parallel the major tectonic lineaments and lithospheric “block” boundaries. The lithospheric memory is expressed in the post-glacial landscape evolution of the NGB.     

黄龙钙华景观形成及演化趋势研究

黄龙景区因拥有钙华源泉、彩池、滩流、瀑布等景观而享誉世界,其钙华景观的稳定性也为世人所关注。文章通过对与钙华景观形成密切相关的地质环境,特别是水循环系统动态变化及区域钙华景观成长演化历史的研究,认为黄龙钙华景观现状稳定性较好,但正处于缓慢的、反复的衰退过程,只要采取适当的措施可以延缓其衰退。     

宁武盆地及周缘岩体裂变径迹对山西地块中—新生代构造演化的约束

宁武盆地及周缘岩体的抬升剥蚀对于山西地块中—新生代构造演化具有重要的指示意义。本文对宁武盆地及周缘岩体进行裂变径迹分析,磷灰石裂变径迹年龄97～47 Ma,锆石裂变径迹年龄161～141 Ma。裂变径迹记录了早白垩世早期(145～125 Ma)、晚白垩世(85～70 Ma)、古新世晚期—始新世早期(59～53 Ma)和渐新世晚期(28 Ma)的4次抬升剥蚀事件。综合分析山西地块的裂变径迹数据,表明隆起区晚古生代以来发生了多期抬升剥蚀事件。山西地块中—新生代构造演化具有时空差异。周缘岩体样品的裂变径迹年龄大于盆地内沉积地层样品的年龄,指示了周缘山体先于盆地抬升剥蚀。晋东北抬升剥蚀时限早于晋西南。山西裂谷系西南端裂开较早。裂谷系发育具有由南向北扩展的特征,这与地层保留记录相一致。山西地块现今地貌格局是在中生代发育一系列雁行状排列的复背斜和复向斜构造基础上发展而成的。     

中南部非洲的地质构造演化与矿产分布规律

中南部非洲优势矿产资源有金、铜、铁、铬、金刚石,锰、铀、镍、钒、钴、铂、锑的储量也居世界前列。主要的矿产集中分布于前寒武纪地体内,中南部非洲前寒武纪地体的形成演化决定了矿产的种类和主要成矿类型。文章总结了中南部非洲的地质构造演化以及其主要矿产资源的成矿类型和分布规律,并划分成矿区带至三级。探讨了部分主要成矿区带的成矿规律:太古宙的矿产主要与花岗-绿岩地体有关;古元古代的矿产主要分布于陆缘盆地,与岩浆作用有关;中元古代的矿产主要与岩浆作用有关,次为沉积变质作用;新元古代的矿产主要与沉积变质作用有关,次为岩浆作用。     

松辽盆地南部中央坳陷区扶余油层古地貌恢复及构造演化

针对松辽盆地南部中央坳陷区扶余油层开展古地貌恢复及构造演化的研究存在3 个难点: 较多区域存在强烈剥蚀,地层破坏严重; 岩性变化大,造成压实恢复困难; 数据计算庞大、繁琐。本文通过优选有效的地层剥蚀方法,建立合理的连续脱压实恢复方程,编制便捷的软件,完成了该项研究。研究揭示扶余油层沉积时期,研究区地势相对平坦,使得河道砂体广泛分布,南、西南、西部3 个低势区控制了4 个水系的发育; 青山口期末研究区初具坳陷形态,之后形态变化较小,至嫩江期末研究区中部青一段烃源岩埋深超过1 400 m,达到生烃门限深度,进入生排烃期。至明水期末最大埋深达 2 400 m,绝大部分地区达到生烃门限深度,之后抬升剥蚀,构造形态定型。     

基于Pecube模型重建青藏高原东南缘临沧花岗岩地区新生代阶段性地貌演化

基于三维热-动力学数值模拟(Pecube),本研究分别采用稳定地形、高原-稳定地形以及高原-动态地形3种模型重建了青藏高原东南缘临沧花岗岩地区晚始新世以及中中新世时期的地貌演化过程。反演结果揭示了在新生代早期(晚始新世),只有高原-稳定地形模拟的结果能够约束研究区冷却-剥露过程,并论证了该时期发生强烈构造抬升的事件,正是因为此次抬升事件,使得高原东南缘地区古高度接近或达到现今状态;中中新世时期,澜沧江侵蚀下切约1 km,对原有的高原地貌进行了进一步改造,从而形成现今的地貌格局。该模型结果验证了青藏高原东南部的构造隆升主要发生在新生代早期,这与侧向挤出模型的预测相一致。

     

Petrology and geochemistry of sandstones in the southern Benue Trough of Nigeria： Implications for provenance and tectonic setting

Petrographic and geochemical analyses of three Cretaceous lithostratigraphic sandstone units were undertaken to constrain their provenance and tectonic setting. Petrographic analysis showed that there are differences in composition between the three sandstone bodies, which can be attributed to differences in provenance relief, transport distance and geology of the terrain. Composition of the three lithostratigraphic sandstone bodies fall within the craton interior field.
Framework mode and chemical features indicated their derivation from basaltic volcanics, source rocks during the early rifting stage, and felsic, intermediate and mafic igneous source rocks located at the southeast basement complex terrain, with minor sedimentary components from the uplifted and folded older Cretaceous strata.
The chemical composition of the sandstones is mainly related to source rocks, chemical weathering conditions and transport agents. The source rocks were derived mainly from the southeastern Precambrian basement of Nigeria. Through examination of the sandstones, the tectonic setting was modeled. The Benue Trough belongs to a continental sedimentary basin of the passive margin type.
The tectonic evolution from Albian to Maastrichtain of the trough is contributed to the difference in framework mode and chemical composition of the sandstones. The evolution of the basin was reconstructed in terms of sandstone petrology and geochemistry. The tectonic evolution can be subdivided into three stages from the petrology and geochemistry data. The first stage covers Albian; the second stage the Turonian-Coniacian, and the third stage the Campanian-Maastrichtain. These are the three mega discontinuities in the sandstone composition among these three stages. These three discontinuities signify the influence of tectonism.     

秦岭岩群（杂岩）中侵入体的年代学、地球化学特征及其对古生代构造运动的启示

秦岭岩群（杂岩）是北秦岭构造带主要的构造岩石单元之一,对研究华北板块和扬子板块之间的构造演化具有重要意义。本文对秦岭岩群杂岩中的4个侵入体（包括片麻状变辉长岩、糜棱岩化花岗岩、片麻状石英闪长岩和片麻状花岗岩）进行了地球化学、锆石U-Pb年代学和Lu-Hf同位素分析,以探讨北秦岭在古生代的岩浆作用。结果表明4个样品富集LREE,亏损HREE;片麻状变辉长岩的锆石年龄集中在481Ma~471Ma,糜棱岩化花岗岩锆石年龄具有486Ma的强峰,代表早古生代岩浆热事件;片麻状石英闪长岩和片麻状花岗岩的锆石年龄分别在417Ma~384Ma之间和400Ma~388Ma之间,代表秦岭岩群（杂岩）在晚古生代早期经历的岩浆活动事件。片麻状变辉长岩的εHf(t)值在-5.64~-3.32之间,代表其原岩来自古老地壳;片麻状石英闪长岩和片麻状花岗岩的εHf(t)值均为正值,分别在7.62~11.84和7.50~10.70之间变化,表明其原岩来自亏损地幔。     

Petrology and P–T path of the Fuping mafic granulites: implications for tectonic evolution of the central zone of the North China craton

The Fuping Complex and the adjoining Wutai and Hengshan Complexes are located in the central zone of the North China craton. The dominant rock types in the Fuping Complex are high‐grade tonalitic–trondhjemitic–granodioritic (TTG) gneisses, with minor amounts of mafic granulites, syntectonic granitic rocks and supracrustal rocks. The petrological evidence from the mafic granulites indicates three stages of metamorphic evolution. The M₁ stage is represented by garnet porphyroblasts and matrix plagioclase, quartz, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene and hornblende. Orthopyroxene+plagioclase symplectites and clinopyroxene+plagioclase±orthopyroxene coronas formed in response to decompression during M₂ following the peak metamorphism at M₁. Hornblende+plagioclase symplectites formed as a result of further isobaric cooling and retrograde metamorphism during M₃. The P–T estimates using TWQ thermobarometry are: 900–950 °C and 8.0–8.5 kbar for the peak assemblage (M₁), based on the core compositions of garnet, matrix pyroxene and plagioclase; 700–800 °C and 6.0–7.0 kbar for the pyroxene+plagioclase symplectites or coronas (M₂); and 550–650 °C and 5.3–6.3 kbar for the hornblende+plagioclase symplectites (M₃), based on garnet rim and corresponding symplectic mineral compositions. These P–T estimates define a clockwise P–T path involving near‐isothermal decompression for the Fuping Complex, similar to the P–T path estimated for the metapelitic gneisses. The inferred P–T path suggests that the Fuping Complex underwent initial crustal thickening, subsequent exhumation, and finally cooling and retrogression. This tectonothermal path is similar to P–T paths inferred for the Wutai and Hengshan Complexes and other tectonic units in the central zone of the North China craton, but different from anti‐clockwise P–T paths estimated for the basement rocks in the eastern and western zones of the craton. Based on lithological, structural, metamorphic and geochronological data, the eastern and western zones of the craton are considered to represent two different Archean to Paleoproterozoic continental blocks that amalgamated along the central zone at the end of Paleoproterozoic. The P–T paths of the Fuping Complex and other tectonic units in the central zone record the collision between the eastern and western zones that led to the final assembly of the North China craton at c. 1800 Ma.     

秦岭造山带主要构造岩石地层单元的构造性质及其大地构造意义

秦岭造山带由三大套构造岩石地层单位所构成,即１、二类不同的前寒武纪基底岩系;２、晚元古代－中三叠世主造山时期受板块构造和垂向增生构造控制的相关构造岩石地层单元;３、中新生代后造山期的陆内断陷与前陆和后陆盆地沉积及广泛的花岗岩浆活动。它们反映着秦岭带三个主要演化时期,在不同构造体制下的三种不同的基本地壳物质组成与结构。它们记录着秦岭造山带长期发展历史中的不同演化阶段的多种造山作用及其不同动力学机制的丰富信息。     

渤海湾中部中、新生代构造演化与潜山的形成

渤海湾盆地是华北克拉通东部的晚中—新生代断陷盆地,其东部为西太平洋活动大陆边缘,经历了多期不同性质的构造运动叠加。目前对渤海湾地区中—新生代的构造期次划分及各期次构造运动的应力状态的认识仍存在较大的争议。潜山是盆地沉积之前就已形成的基岩古地貌山,后被新地层覆盖而成,潜山内幕所保留的先存断裂及潜山与上覆盖层之间的接触关系为研究盆地构造运动提供了依据。本文以渤中19-6潜山构造为例,基于三维地震资料的精细解释、结合相干剖面及钻井资料进行系统构造解析,建立渤中19-6潜山构造演化新模型,并探讨了华北克拉通东缘的区域构造演化。研究结果表明:(1)渤中19-6潜山构造西部以一系列S-N向雁列式正断层为界,断层东侧为隆起的渤中19-6潜山构造,西侧为低洼的沙南凹陷。古潜山最早形成于晚三叠世,早白垩世形成如今以S-N向正断层为界的东隆西降的潜山构造格局;(2)渤中19-6潜山构造西部边界S-N向断裂以及上覆地层中存在的E-W向断裂为两侧大型走滑带间雁列式断裂构造,是该潜山构造储层形成的重要控制因素;(3)该潜山受华北板块与扬子板块剪刀式闭合碰撞和古太平洋板块NNW向俯冲的多重影响,中生代以来,共经历了印支早期挤压隆起、印支晚期伸展改造、燕山早期左行压扭改造、燕山中期左行伸展改造、燕山晚期左行压扭改造、喜山期右行伸展埋藏6个阶段的发育演化。     

黄河贵德段河流阶地及演变研究

贵德盆地作为青藏高原东北部的一个构造地貌单元,处于黄河上游中段,盆地中河流阶地发育,但是阶地的形成时代仍存在很大争议。选择贵德盆地黄河阶地作为研究对象,并从龙羊峡至松坝峡共采集阶地ESR测年样品10个,进行了年代测试,结果表明贵德盆地新构造运动具有间歇性、差异性特征。笔者还并分析了黄河贵德段演变特征。