正冻土中冰透镜体形成力学判据的分析讨论

冻结缘是正冻土中从未冻区向冻结区过渡、并且非常薄的冰水共存带. 由于冻结缘在正冻土中位置的特殊性和其对冻胀的重要性, 从其概念的提出并在试验中得到证实后, 基于冻结缘的第二冻胀理论得到了快速发展. 通过分析近些年冻结缘的研究现状及冻结缘内冰-水压力关系基本可以发现, 由于受到现有观测和测试技术的限制, 描述冻结缘的很多参数大多来自于经验. 土体在冻结过程中, 在温度梯度小的情况下, 可以形成不连续的多层分凝冰. 只有了解冻结缘的特性才能更深刻了解分凝冻胀. 但关于分凝冰的形成判据却有很多种, 主要分为两类:一类是以热物理方面作为判据; 另一类是以力学方面作为判据. 通过对分凝冰形成的各种判据的综合分析和比较, 发现用冰压力和未冻水膜压力判断分凝冰形成是比较合理的, 而用孔隙压力则因为水压力概念的不清而显得模糊. 这些分析将为冻土冻胀理论的研究提供科学参考.     

土壤的冷生构造及其对阿拉斯加土地利用的意义

Cryogenic structure (patterns made by ice inclusions) in seasonally frozen and permafrost-af-fected soils result from ice formation during freezing. Analysis of cryogenic structures in soils is essential to our understanding of the cryogenic processes in soils and to formulating land use management interpretations. When soils freeze, the freezing front moves downward and attracts water moving upward resulting in mainly horizontal lenticular ice formation. Platy and lenticular soil structures form between ice lenses in upper active layer. The reticular soil structure usually forms above the permafrost table caused by freeze-back of the permafrost. The upward freeze-back resulted in platy soil structure and the volume changes following the annual freeze-thaw cycle resulted in vertical cracks. The combined result is an ice-net formation with mineral soils embedded in the ice net. The upper permafrost layer that used to be a part of the active layer has an ice content exceeding 50% due to repeated freeze-thaw cycles over time. The mineral soils appear in blocks embedded in an ice matrix. The permafrost layer that never experienced the freeze-thaw cycle often consists of alternate layers of thin ice lens and frozen soils with extreme hard consistence and has relatively lower ice content than the ice-rich layer of the upper permafrost. Ice contents and thaw settling potentials associated with each cryogenic structure should be considered in engineering and land use interpretations.     

State-of-the-art report — frost action in soils

Several theories have been employed to describe the mechanism of frost heave and ice lens formation in soils. In the early seventies, the capillary theory, visualizing ice lens growth at the frost front in non-colloidal soils, has been invalidated by experimental evidence. This led to models in which ice lens growth takes place behind the frost front. Experimental confirmation of this concept was presented at several occasions. Simultaneously, numerical simulation of these models was attempted. In some of these, advanced finite-element and finite-difference techniques were employed.In these recent approaches, mass movement for ice lens growth takes place in a zone of frozen soil. This movement is facilitated by the presence of liquid water films between the pore ice and the pore wall. Coupling of heat and moisture movement in this zone is achieved by employing a generalized form of the Clausius-Clapeyron equation.Some qualitative and numerical models now include the effect of overburden load on the heaving process. Different approaches are followed to predict the effect of overburden load on the pressures in pore liquid and pore ice. In this paper various laboratory tests for frost-heave susceptibility, in use or proposed in recent years, are summarized. A major difference among them is, that either a constant frost penetration rate or a step change in surface temperature is applied. In recent publications it is concluded that net rate of heat extraction is the independent variable in the frost-heave process and should be standardized in laboratory tests.     

土体冻结过程中的热质迁移研究进展

土体的冻胀，融沉问题归根结底是热质迁移问题，文章概述了近年来在国际上有关这方面研究的新成果，总体上讲，冻结缘的厚度，分凝冰形成温度以及冰透镜体形成条件等作为热质迁移试验研究的重点受到关注，质的迁移研究不仅仅限制在水分的迁移，而且对于矿物质，溶质，气体等的迁移以及对水分迁移的影响都有不同程度的研究，对于冻胀预报模型，已从经验型过渡到依据基本物理，力学，热动力学理论而建立的理论模型，今后的研究发展方向是加强室内参数测试水平以及对理论模型的普遍性验证。     

冰透镜体形成过程中的土体破裂驱动力研究综述

随着寒区工程高等级化和变形限制要求的进一步严格化,冻胀问题已经成为寒区工程建设考虑的关键问题。造成冻胀的原因在于外界水分迁移冻结并形成冰透镜体,因此,深入认识冰透镜体形成问题对解决实际工程中的冻害问题具有重要的意义。由于冰透镜体的形成受控于土体破裂驱动力,因此,深入开展冻结过程中的土体破裂驱动力研究对阐明冰透镜体的生长机理以及解决工程冻胀问题具有重要的指导意义。通过对国内外在土体冻结过程中的土体破裂驱动力方面的研究进行综合评述,指出各研究结果之间的异同点。基于各研究结果的相同点,分析了目前土体破裂驱动力研究中存在的不足,并提出了今后研究发展的方向。     

Formation and growth of multiple,distinct ice lenses in frost heave

This paper presents a fully coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) model which simulates frost heave in fully saturated soils. The model is able to simulate the formation and growth of multiple distinct ice lenses. The basic equations of the system were derived using the continuum theory of mixtures, nonequilibrium thermodynamics, and fracture mechanics, considering skeleton deformation, water flow and heat transport. Central to this model is the coupled transport of mass due to the temperature gradient across the frozen fringe, which acts as the main driving force of the phenomenon. The model is formulated in terms of measurable physical properties and thus no ad hoc parametrization is required. In an ice-lens-free state, the system is solved as a continuum using the finite element method (FEM). It is then locally treated as a discontinuous system upon the formation of ice lens, by enriching the elements carrying the embedded ice lens(es) using the extended finite element method (X-FEM). The accuracy and efficiency of the proposed model has been verified using several laboratory tests on Devon silt samples at different overburden pressures and thermal boundary conditions. Shut-off pressures have been also estimated and compared with the experimental results.     

Ice lens structures, compression strengths and creep behavior of some synthetic frozen silty soils

This research paper concerns the frozen state properties of several silty soils encountered in the construction of a large LNG storage cavern near Carlstadt, New Jersey.

The creep and compression strengths were correlated with both field and laboratory-measured mechanical properties. These cryogenic mechanical properties were related to ice lens structures, sizes and occurrences, and to heat flow and geological structure effects. Three distinct and separate types of ice lenses were identified. These cryogenic ground data pertain to the prediction of the engineering properties of frozen earth for large structures. Sample size effect problems were investigated, this in relationship to the number and size and orientations of the ice lenses present.     

饱和正冻土冻结过程的冻胀变形分析

在分析土体冻胀形成原因的基础上,通过建立冻胀过程的应力场控制方程和温度场控制方程,利用固相增量法和热弹性力学理论,推导出冻胀过程中在温度场影响下的应力分量。在此基础上对冰透镜体形成条件进行了补充,提出相变温度也是冰透镜体形成的必要条件。通过对冻结过程机理的分析,在考虑温度和未冻水对冻胀量的影响基础上,对原位冻胀和分凝冻胀机理分别进行了讨论,给出完整冻胀量的理论计算方法,该方法可以更贴近描述土体实际冻胀过程。     

定点冰厚观测新技术研究

冰厚是冰科学和冰工程研究中最关键的物理指标之一,为满足定点冰厚观测不同需要,发展了3种定点冰厚观测新技术。结合它们的测量原理及其现场或实验室的应用结果,论述了它们的适用性和各自的优点。基于磁致伸缩原理的冰厚测量仪现场测量精度达±2mm,解决了制约海冰热力学模式向精细发展的"瓶颈"问题;电阻式冰厚测量仪比利用温度廓线推求冰厚的技术更加可靠,且具有自动测量冰川表面物质平衡,进行河道、湖泊以及水库冰厚观测时同时监测其冰下水位的潜力;热电阻丝冰厚测量装置制作简单廉价、使用方便、数据可靠,在中国北方小型水文站广泛推广是适合的。     

Composition and genesis of glacial hummocks, western Wisconsin, USA

Glacial hummocks associated with the Superior Lobe in western Wisconsin are stagnant-ice features composed of melt-out till, meltwater-stream sediment, and flow till. The greater proportion of melt-out till in these hummocks than in hummocks described elsewhere suggests that a model of extensive, supraglacial reworking of supraglacially released debris does not apply to the western Wisconsin hummocks. Interpretation of melt-out till in hummock exposures is based on its strong fabric oriented parallel to regional ice-flow direction. Other features of this melt-out till include poorly developed stratification (color banding and discontinuous thin sandy lenses), and minor faulting, both of which support a melt-out origin. We suggest that as stagnant, debris-rich ice began to melt, supraglacially released debris was deposited as flow till and meltwater-stream sediment (with some debris-flow sediment and lake sediment), but as the thickness of supraglacial debris increased, debris melting out at depth was stabilized, allowing features characteristic of melt-out till to be retained. Because the supraglacial debris was sandy and the stagnant ice was likely at the pressure-melting point, the supraglacial debris was well drained and did not readily fail and flow. Debris volume in the glacier generally was greater at the glacier margin, but lateral and longitudinal variations within this zone were caused by thrusting, freezing-on, or ice-margin fluctuations, which in turn resulted in variations in hummock relief. Ice-walled-lake plains are commonly associated with the hummocks and developed where debris volume was small.     

饱和粉土冻结过程中的水分迁移试验研究

改变边界温度和土样高度,对饱和粉土进行了冻结试验,研究其水分迁移、水分重分布、冻胀和冰透镜体的发展规律。试验结果表明：当温度稳定时,水分持续迁移到冻结锋面附近,含水率急剧增大,易形成冰透镜体。饱和粉土冰透镜体几何形态较为规则,无枝状交叉结构,已冻土为整体状且无网状裂隙。冻结过程中存在起始冻胀时间,在起始冻胀时间之前,土中水分被排出,冻胀发生之后水分补给到冻土中,且补给水分产生的冻胀量和总冻胀量数值接近。土样高度影响水分迁移量和冻胀量,土样越高,冻胀量越小,冻土含水率增量越小,但水分增量分布区域越分散,且起始冻胀时间越长。     

Gibbsitic soils on former nunataks: implications for ice sheet reconstruction

X-ray diffraction analyses of soils above and below a periglacial trimline developed across the basalts of the Trotternish Escarpment (Isle of Skye, Scotland) demonstrate that gibbsite is restricted to soils above the trimline. This suggests that the gibbsite is a relict of pre-Late Devensian weathering, and that the trimline did not develop after the last ice sheet achieved its maximum thickness. The sharpness of the boundary between frost-weathered regolith and gibbsitic soils upslope and ice-scoured bedrock associated with gibbsite-free soils downslope suggests that the trimline represents the altitude of the last ice sheet at its maximum thickness rather than a former boundary between passive cold-based ice and erosive warm-based ice. These findings illustrate how identification of high-level periglacial trimlines and associated contrasts in clay mineralogy provide a means for constraining reconstructions of the form of the last ice sheets.     

Shingled Quaternary debris flow lenses on the north-east Newfoundland Slope

Debris flow deposits are the principal component of Quaternary continental slope sediments between the north-east Newfoundland Shelf and central Orphan Basin. In seismic profiles, these deposits occur as shingled, elongate, acoustically transparent lenses with their long axes orientated downslope. Deposits of individual flows form positive mounds on the sea floor; subsequent flows were diverted by the pre-existing topography into bathymetric lows between older debris flow deposits. These deposits show a large variation in the area of sea floor covered by individual flows (about 60–1000 km²), average thickness of deposits (9–37 m) and volume of sediment displaced (1–27 km³). The ratio of average thickness to a measure of deposit diameter, termed the aspect ratio, has a threefold variation from 0·0006 to 0·0021. Very low depositional slopes and low aspect ratios suggest relatively low viscosities, probably due to inmixing of water during downslope transport. Stratified sediments form three distinct horizons and are locally interbedded with the debris flow deposits. These are mainly hemipelagic deposits. The slope and rise to the west of the Orphan Basin are constructional in character. The apparent absence of upper slope erosional features and the abundance of debris flow deposits on the slope suggest that the supply of sediment to the continental slope occurred predominantly during times of maximum extent of Quaternary glacial ice. The ice sheet grounding line during several glacial maxima must have been situated at or near the present shelf break, supplying vast amounts of sediment directly to the upper slope. Oversteepening and subsequent slope failures fed material into deeper water.     

Stefan方程在土壤冻融过程模拟中的应用

多年冻土与大气间的相互作用主要是通过活动层中的水热动态变化过程而实现。气候变化背景下的多年冻土活动层冻融过程模拟、多年冻土厚度制图和变化预测是研究冻土区生态环境、水文、工程以及碳循环的基础。根据国内外研究进展,总结了不同修正形式的Stefan方程在多年冻土活动层冻融过程和活动层厚度模拟中的应用进展,对将Stefan方程应用到分层堆积土壤中的不同算法进行了简要介绍,并指出了其在应用过程中存在的问题。Stefan方程首次将地表（或者大气）温度的变化与冰层（或者土层）的冻结融化过程以简单公式的形式联系起来,极大地简化了土壤冻结融化过程的分析计算。由于其输入参数少、形式简单、模拟效果可靠,成为常用模拟土壤冻融过程的方法之一,将其耦合到气候模型、陆面模型和水文模型中的研究也越来越多。Stefan方程最初在研究北极地区湖冰形成过程时提出,在应用到冻土学中后,不同学者在考虑土壤含水量、不同下垫面地气温差、地形和降水等因素后对方程进行了改进,并有多种算法试图将这一方程应用到非均质土壤中,取得了较好的模拟效果。但是,Stefan方程在国内的应用更多地用于简单模拟均质土壤多年冻土活动层厚度的空间分布状况,其应用到非均质土壤中的研究却较少。因此,未来需更深入研究Stefan方程模拟分层土壤的冻融过程,为准确掌握多年冻土对气候变化的响应研究提供最基本的方法。     

饱和颗粒正冻土一维刚性冰模型的数值模拟

基于刚性冰模型,应用有限差分法离散方程组,对于饱和颗粒土开放系统的冻结过程进行了一维数值模拟,给出了冻结缘内参数的分布.计算过程中修正了刚性冰模型中分凝冰产生条件,提出以冻结缘内冰压与载荷的关系作为分凝冰产生的判据,计算得到的冻胀量与实验室冻胀实验的测量数据较为吻合.将计算结果与现场实测资料进行了比较,温度场、含水量分布等结果在分布规律方面与现场实测资料相符.     

饱和颗粒正冻土-维刚性冰模型的数值模拟

基于刚性冰模型，应用有限差分法离散方程组，对于饱和颗粒土开放系统的冻结过程进行了一维数值模拟，给出了冻结缘内参数的分布．计算过程中修正了刚性冰模型中分凝冰产生条件，提出以冻结缘内冰压与载荷的关系作为分凝冰产生的判据，计算得到的冻胀量与实验室冻胀实验的测量数据较为吻合．将计算结果与现场实测资料进行了比较，温度场、含水量分布等结果在分布规律方面与现场实测资料相符．     

Location of segregated ice in frost-susceptible soil

X-ray photography has been used to locate the position of a growing ice lens in soil under laboratory conditions in order to establish the temperature of the actively growing face by means of its position in the thermal gradient field. It can be shown that in a general way the phase change temperatures are predictable from the Clapeyron equation. The structure of the ice phase also appears to follow the predictions of the heave rate equation proposed by Penner and Ueda (1978). When heaving occurs at low overburden pressures, there is a tendency for the ice lens to be very discrete and essentially soil free; at higher pressures and under similar thermal gradients it tends to develop in a more diffuse band and over a much wider temperature range.     

基于IceBridge数据的南极别林斯高晋海的海冰厚度研究

海冰变化与全球气候、 生态系统和人类活动密切相关, 海冰厚度是海冰变化研究的重要参数之一。全面立体高精度观测海冰厚度的最有效手段是航空遥感, 而冰桥计划（IceBridge）是当前南北极最大的航空遥感工程。基于2009 - 2014年冰桥计划的激光雷达高程数据和数字测图系统相机光学影像对南极别林斯高晋海的海冰厚度进行研究, 并结合降雪量等气象数据探讨该区域海冰厚度变化的原因。研究发现该海域的海冰厚度在2009 - 2014年间整体呈微弱增长趋势（0.07 m·a^-1）, 但是在95%置信水平下不具有显著性。2009 - 2011年呈现先增加后减少的大幅度变化, 其中2010年达到极大值2.42 m, 之后开始缓慢增加。海冰厚度的年际变化与降雪和近地表温度等气象要素相关, 二者相比较而言降雪为主要影响因素。     

Geochemical investigations associated with the Wilga and Currawong massive sulphide deposits, Benambra, Victoria

The Wilga and Currawong copper-zinc massive sulphide deposits in northeastern Victoria occur within a sequence of Silurian volcanics and sediments. The Wilga deposit which was discovered in mid 1978 consists of a single lens while the Currawong deposit, discovered in early 1979, consists of at least two lenses.The first indication of the presence of base metal mineralization in the area was provided by an assessment of stream sediment geochemical data contained in open-file Exploration Licence reports at the Victorian Department of Minerals and Energy.The massive sulphide mineralization does not outcrop, but the ore horizons are weakly mineralized and give rise to stringer gossans as far as 150 m up dip from ore grade mineralization. These can be identified by their trace element chemistry (anomalous values of Bi, Fe, As, Au, Pb, Hg, Se, Co, Ag and Mn) corresponding to the trace element signature of both stringer and massive sulphides.Soils in the area are essentially skeletal and residual with some colluvial movement on the steeper slopes. The soils are highly anomalous in Cu, Pb, and Zn over the projected horizon of the Wilga mineralization and the No. 2 lens at Currawong.The stream sediment responses at both Wilga and Currawong result from a combination of chemical and elastic dispersion. Downslope from the surface expression of the Wilga mineralization a spring discharges directly into the Tambo River. The spring has a very low pH and is rich in base metals resulting in enhanced metal values in both stream water and stream sediments.Analyses of selected samples of the more prominent vegetation species have failed to show a clear relationship to the mineralization.