Climate and material controls on periglacial soil processes: Toward improving periglacial climate indicators

One of the distinguished efforts of A.L. Washburn was to reconstruct mean annual air temperature using periglacial features as climate indicators. This paper reviews existing periglacial indicators and proposes a strategy to improve their thermal resolution based on recent periglacial process studies, with a focus on solifluction and thermal contraction cracking and associated landforms/structures. Landforms resulting from solifluction reflect both the depth subjected to freeze-thaw and the thickness of frost-susceptible soils. The thickness of a solifluction structure can be used to infer the dominant freeze-thaw regime and minimum seasonal frost depth. Ice-wedge pseudomorphs have limited potential as a climate indicator because (1) they mainly reflect extreme winter temperatures, (2) their thermal thresholds depend on the host material, and (3) they need to be distinguished from frost wedges of other origin produced under different thermal and/or material conditions. Monitoring studies of currently active ice wedges suggest that ice-wedge cracking requires a combination of low temperature and large temperature gradients in the frozen active layer. Further field monitoring of periglacial processes and their controlling factors under various climate conditions and in various materials are needed, however, to improve the resolution of periglacial paleoclimate indicators.     

大兴安岭湿地多年冻土区活动层水热特征分析

大兴安岭北部是我国唯一的中高纬度多年冻土区,其水热特征分析对陆气能量交换、生态系统和气候变化等研究有重要意义。基于2011—2020年期间对大兴安岭森林生态站附近的湿地多年冻土开展的气温和0~2 m地温和土壤含水量数据,对大兴安岭湿地多年冻土活动层的水热特征进行了分析。结果表明：湿地多年冻土活动层内地温的变幅随深度减小,且具有滞后性。融化期地表温度高于深层地温,冻结期相反。2012年、2013年、2019年和2020年的平均融化速率分别为0.49、0.61、0.47和0.56 cm·d^-1,向上平均冻结速率分别为1.34、2.12、2.58和1.65 cm·d^-1。向下平均冻结速率分别为1.69、1.02、3.32和1.00 cm·d^-1,最大融化深度分别为78.73、85.65、66.22和74.94 cm。2012年5月—2013年5月期间,土壤未冻水含量随地温变化的拟合关系较好,相关系数大于0.90,且深层拟合效果优于表层。融化期土壤水分变化幅度大,与地温的相关性差,随深度增加相关性减弱。湿地充足的水分为多年冻土的双向冻结提供了条件。研究成果可为大兴安岭湿地多年冻土区的冻融循环、水热耦合机理和模拟研究提供数据基础和理论依据。     

1977 - 2017年雅江流域中下游大气/地面冻融指数时空变化特征

冻结指数是某个地区冻结期长短和严寒程度的综合表征, 融化指数是某个地区融化期长短及正积温高低的综合度量, 冻融指数也是计算活动层厚度和季节冻结深度的关键参数, 并可用于多年冻土分布预报。利用雅鲁藏布江（雅江）流域中下游11个气象站点的逐日气温、 地面温度数据计算了1977 - 2017年大气及地面冻融指数, 并分析其时空变化趋势。结果表明： 雅江流域中下游近40年来冻结指数呈显著下降趋势, 大气冻结指数、 地面冻结指数、 大气融化指数、 地面融化指数多年变化范围分别为208.4 ~ 508.0、 136.9 ~ 371.0、 2 171.8 ~ 2 499.8、 3 350.2 ~ 4 315.2 ℃·d; 其气候倾斜率分别为-36.6、 -48.7、 90.7、 115.8 ℃·d·（10a）^-1。雅江流域大气和地面冻结指数以海拔4 488.8 m的嘉黎最大, 海拔2 991.9 m的林芝最小; 大气和地面融化指数则以海拔3 560 m的泽当最大, 海拔4 488.8 m的嘉黎最小。流域内大气负温日数变化规律与地面负温日数变化趋势基本一致, 其气候倾向率分别是-6.28 d·（10a）^-1和-5.57 d·（10a）^-1。研究结果可为雅江流域冻土预报, 冻融作用所形成的冰缘地貌研究及其引发的地质灾害如冻融滑塌、 冻融泥流等灾害的监测与预防提供借鉴。     

Slope hummock development, Fosheim Peninsula, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada

Slope hummocks, a type of nonsorted patterned ground, are composed of stratified, organic, silty sand, and develop through the interaction of niveo-eolian deposition, solifluction, slopewash, and vegetation growth. Fields of hummocks show consistent patterns: forms on convex slopes increase in height downslope until the channel is reached, whereas those on convexo-concave slopes increase on the upper convexity but are buried by niveo-eolian deposition downslope of the snowbank remnant. These trends can be reproduced using a simple numerical model based on measured slope and snow depth profiles, sediment concentrations in the snow and solifluction rates. The model indicates that hummocks transit slopes of 20-40 m in about 2-4 ka, a time-frame that is plausible given site emergence, measured rates of solifluction, and published dates for organic horizons within hummocks on northern Ellesmere Island. Sensitivity analyses show that long-term effect of climate warming on hummock heights may differ depending on whether it is accompanied by precipitation increase or decrease. The required combination of two-sided freezing to promote plug-like movement, incomplete vegetation cover and thin snow that enable eolian erosion during winter and spring, and vegetation growth in snow-bed sites to stabilize niveo-eolian deposits may explain why these forms are important regionally but apparently are not present throughout the Arctic.     

青藏高原中部典型下垫面活动层水热动态及其热扩散率研究

多年冻土活动层, 尤其是浅层土壤的水热传输机制, 以及冻融过程的时空异质性是研究地-气间能水交换的关键。利用位于青藏高原中部的唐古拉和通天河两个活动层观测场2013年的土壤温度和水分数据, 比较了不同下垫面浅层土壤日冻融循环过程的差异, 以及不同冻融阶段的地温日变化及热扩散率特征。结果表明： 根据一日之内地温的正负波动, 浅层土壤的冻融过程可以划分为解冻期、 完全融化期、 始冻期和完全冻结期四个时期, 其中解冻期和始冻期统称为日冻融循环发生期。解冻期的持续天数和深度明显高于始冻期, 高寒草原的日冻融循环天数和发生深度明显高于高寒草甸。浅层土壤（0 ~ 20 cm）日地温变化普遍呈现明显的正弦波动趋势, 且不同冻融阶段的振幅差异较大, 由于相变的缘故, 解冻期的日地温变化振幅最小。高寒草甸的日地温振幅显著低于高寒草原, 说明日地温动态与土壤质地和土壤水分密切相关, 植被作为热绝缘层, 减弱了地温对气温波动的响应。地表下5 ~ 10 cm的热扩散率显著大于10 ~ 20 cm深度, 且5 - 10月融化季的热扩散率显著大于冻结季。热传导对流方程可以描述多年冻土区典型下垫面在季节冻融循环周期内不同月份的水分迁移方向。     

青藏高原冻土区活动层厚度分布模拟

活动层夏季融化、冬季冻结的近地表土(岩)层,是冻土地区热力动态最活跃的岩层,在冻土研究中有着重要意义.根据青藏高原地区80个气象观测台站1991-2000年的地面温度观测资料结合数字高程模型,计算出青藏高原冻土区的地面冻结指数和地面融化指数,然后应用斯蒂芬公式分别得到多年冻土区的季节融化深度和季节冻土区的季节冻结深度.     

冻融作用对系统与环境间能量交换的影响

通过求解古典Neumann问题,研究土壤在冻结和融化过程的热交换特征,从理论上分析了冻融作用对系统与环境间能量交换的影响.以草炭亚粘土和亚粘土为例,计算了广泛环境条件下的冻融作用对系统温度变化和与环境间热交换的影响.结果表明,冻融作用使相应过程表层温度梯度加大,热交换强度增强.     

Ground ice and slope sediments archiving late Quaternary paleoenvironment and paleoclimate signals at the margins of El'gygytgyn Impact Crater, NE Siberia

An accumulation terrace close to the El'gygytgyn Impact Crater in northeastern Siberia contains stratigraphic and periglacial evidence of the paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic history and permafrost dynamics during late Quaternary time. A succession of paleo active-layer deposits that mirror environmental changes records periods favorable for the establishment and growth of ice-wedge polygonal networks and sediment variations. These two elements of the periglacial landscape serve as complementary paleoenvironmental archives that can be traced back to ∼ 14,000 cal yr BP. The slope sediments and the ground ice contained therein have prominent relative maxima and minima in properties (grain size, total organic content, oxygen isotopes). They document a regional early Holocene thermal maximum at about 9000 cal yr BP, followed by a transition to slightly cooler conditions, and a subsequent transition to slightly warmer conditions after about 4000 cal yr BP. Results from sedimentary analysis resemble morphological and geochemical (oxygen and hydrogen isotopes) results from ice wedge studies, in which successive generations of ice-wedge polygonal networks record warmer winters in late Holocene time. Moreover, peaks of light soluble cation contents and quartz-grain surface textures reveal distinct traces of cryogenic weathering. We propose a conclusive sedimentation model illustrating terrace formation in a permafrost terrain.     

青藏公路沿线多年冻土区活动层起始冻融时间的时空变化特征和影响因素

多年冻土区活动层冻融格局对气候系统、能量平衡、水文过程和生态系统有重要的影响,地表冻融时间是反映冻融格局时空变化的重要指标。为了探明多年冻土区活动层起始冻融时间的影响因素和机制,通过对青藏公路沿线8个典型活动层观测场地表起始融化时间（OOT）和起始冻结时间（OOF）进行研究,分析了不同观测场起始冻融时间的时空差异及其影响因素。结果表明：（1）青藏高原多年冻土区活动层起始融化主要发生在4月中下旬,起始冻结主要发生在10月中下旬。OOT的年际变化幅度远大于OOF,每年起始冻结的发生较起始融化更为准时。（2）起始融化发生时的气温普遍比起始冻结发生时高1~4℃。气温对OOT的影响要比对OOF大,其中OOT的变化主要与春季气温有关,冬季气温对其影响不大。（3）植被和土壤水分对OOT和OOF有重要调节作用,土壤含水率越高,植被状况越好,起始融化和冻结的发生时间往往越迟。（4）在起始融化和冻结阶段,厚度较大和持续时间较长的积雪对地温变化有明显的抑制作用,对OOT和OOF有延迟作用。     

Bubble-induced porewater mixing: A 3-D model for deep porewater irrigation

Porewater data from vent sites of the northeastern shelf off Sakhalin Island, Sea of Okhotsk, exhibit bottom-water concentrations down to a sediment depth of up to 300 cm. Below this depth, solute concentrations rapidly change due to methanogenesis and anaerobic methane oxidation (AMO). The profile shapes suggest an irrigation-like process that mixes on a meter scale. At these sites active gas emanation into the overlying water column and near-surface gas hydrates are commonly observed. We propose that methane gas bubbles rise through the soft surface sediments and cause mixing of the porewater.Mathematically, the bubble-induced irrigation can be described by eddy diffusion enhancing the diffusive transport of solutes by several orders of magnitude. A 3-D numerical transport-reaction model was developed to investigate the parameters defining the mixing process, such as bubble rise velocity, tube size, tube distribution in the sediment, and ebullition frequency.Model consistency with the field data requires eddy diffusivities ?1 × 10⁵ cm²/a, tube densities of >4 tubes/m² (equivalent to a tube spacing of <40 cm), active gas seepage for more than a few weeks or months, and moderate to low diagenetic reaction rates of solutes. The corresponding methane gas fluxes that are predicted from the results of the model realizations range from 1 × 10³-5 × 10⁵ L/(m² a). Due to bubble mixing, solute fluxes in these sediments are increased by a factor of 3 and the maximum AMO rate by a factor of 7.     

Ground ice recharge via brine transport in frozen soils of Victoria Valley, Antarctica: Insights from modeling δO and δD profiles

Soils in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica contain ice and considerable amounts of salt. Ice often occurs at shallow depth throughout the Dry Valleys and other areas of hyperarid permafrost, notably on Mars. This common occurrence of shallow ice is enigmatic; however, since according to published sublimation models it should disappear relatively quickly (at rates of order 0.1 mm a⁻¹) due to vapor loss to the atmosphere. This loss may be offset by recharge from snowmelt infiltrating and freezing in the soil. Herein, we present a first quantitative estimate of this recharge based on measured vertical profiles of δD and δ¹⁸O that reveal considerable detail about the sources and sinks of ice. We model these profiles, taking into account the salt content and a soil temperature record along a 1.6 m depth profile of ∼10 ka old ice-cemented soils in Victoria Valley, Antarctica. The stable isotopes of ice are enriched in heavy isotopes at the top of the ice cement (20 cm depth); both δD and δ¹⁸O values plotted against depth exhibit a concave upward curve. At depth, the isotope composition is similar to that of Lake Victoria and modern meteoric water. The concave shape of the isotope profile is suggestive of downward advection-dispersion of snowmelt water enriched in heavy isotopes into the ice cement. Our advection-dispersion model, coupled with field data, enables us to quantify the advective flux and dispersion of melt water into the ice. The advective velocity and dispersion coefficient depend on the time since advection began and the ice-to-brine ratio; they are, respectively, of the order of 10⁻¹¹-10⁻¹⁰ m s⁻¹ and 10⁻¹²-10⁻¹¹ m² s⁻¹. These values suggest that over the ∼10 ka time period, a total of 190 mm water infiltrated into the ice-cemented ground. The isotope composition and deuterium excess values of the uppermost ice cement can be modeled from snowmelt water enriched in salts using open system-Rayleigh fractionation. To develop the isotopic signature of the upper ice cement requires evaporation of ∼95% of the snowmelt water. Based on 190 mm brine infiltrating into the soil requires an initial total of ∼4 m of snowmelt water. This corresponds to ∼0.4 mm a⁻¹ suggesting that, under the current climate condition, water from snowmelt is sufficient to compensate modeled sublimation rates, and therefore conserve ground ice in Victoria Valley.     

Periglacial environment in Japan: present and past

This review article is intended to introduce periglacial environment present and past in Japan, and to summarize some studies on it. The periglacial climate in Japan is characterized by a wide annual range of air temperature and much snow accumulation in winter. This makes for local variability in appearance of periglacial processes on the mountain slopes near crests. In Japan, the main interest in periglacial studies concerns the above-mentioned variability and its causes, that is, how periglacial processes relate to vegetation, local climate especially snow accumulation and its seasonal duration, soil, micro-relief, properties of bed rock etc.Seasonal soil freezing was measured in lowlands of Hokkaido. Depth of frost penetration without snow cover increases proportionally to the increments of accumulated degree-days. Depth of frost penetration on natural conditions is affected not only by the degree-days but also by the depth of snow cover which differs locally even within a small area.The oldest frozen ground phenomena was recognized in a horizon about 50,000 years old in the lowlands of Hokkaida. Involutions about 40,000 years ago exceeded active earth hummocks in size. And the phenomena reached the maximum phase is represented by icewedge casts of the En-a pumice (ca. 15,000 abp). Most of fossil features are covered with undisturbed Ta-d pumice (cz. 9,000 abp), but earth hummocks and vertical stones have been still formed in the Holocene tephra layers.     

祁连山区黑河上游俄博岭多年冻土区活动层碳储量研究

为了探索在全球气候变化背景下多年冻土区碳储量现状, 通过野外实地勘探和室内实验, 对黑河上游俄博岭多年冻土区地貌特征及不同海拔活动层内的碳储量进行考察和估算. 结果表明: 黑河上游俄博岭冰缘现象显著, 土壤季节冻融过程活跃, 且活动层中碳储量丰富. 在研究区约2.5×10⁶ m² 的范围内, 活动层平均厚度约为1.1 m, 活动层土壤有机质平均含量约为72.1%, 碳储量估算约为1.57 Mt C. 活动层不同深度处有机质含量呈现不同的变化规律. 随着活动层深度增加, 土壤有机质的含量逐渐降低, 在多年冻土上限附近有机质含量较高. 另外, 活动层有机质含量随着海拔和土壤含水量的不同而变化, 同时多年冻土区微地形和地质条件也对有机质含量具有重要的影响.     

Stability Analysis and Numerical Simulation of Differential Frost Heave

Differential frost heave is often implicated in the formation of patterned ground in regions subject to recurrent freezing and thawing. A linear stability analysis (LSA) indicates that a continuum model of frost heave is linearly unstable under typical natural freezing conditions of silty-clay soils. A two-dimensional non-linear numerical analysis corroborates the frozen time LSA results, and also indicates the importance of non-linear and time-dependent terms that ultimately lead to a preferred mode, which the LSA fails to predict. Instability of the one-dimensional solution occurs at shallow freezing depths and near-zero surface loads when positive perturbations in the ice content at the freezing front lead to a concomitant increase in thermomolecular pressure and upward ice velocity. Differential frost heave can then occur because of the increased heat flux from the perturbed surfaces. A three-dimensional model using random initial surface perturbations indicates that regular surface patterns will evolve with a length scale in the order of 2–4 meters, which corresponds quite closely with naturally-occurring non-sorted patterned ground.     

青藏高原多年冻土区地温年变化深度的变化规律及影响因素

地温年变化深度的准确判断对于多年冻土发育特征评估、寒区冻土模式下边界深度的确定具有重要意义.通过对青藏高原地区典型钻孔地温数据进行分析,初步揭示了多年冻土地温年变化深度的变化规律及其影响因素,并提出一种简化了地表和活动层状态影响的地温年变化深度估算方法.结果表明：研究区低温冻土的地温年变化深度平均值比高温冻土大4.6 m,随着冻土温度升高,地温年变化深度基本上呈减小趋势,部分低温冻土钻孔由于土层含水率过高导致地温年变化深度相对较小;由于活动层水热动态和冻融过程的影响,地温年变化深度与浅层（0.5 m）温度年较差相关性不显著,而与多年冻土上限附近温度年较差的大小呈显著正相关关系;地层介质的热扩散率差异是导致地温年变化深度区域差异和变化的主要原因,土层含水率、温度、质地以及水的相态是影响地层热物理性质重要因素.     

季节冻土区黑土耕层土壤冻融过程及水分变化

利用黑龙江省水利科学研究院水利试验研究中心综合实验观测场2011年11月-2012年4月整个冻结融化期的实测野外黑土耕层土壤温度和水分数据, 对中-深季节冻土区黑土耕层土壤冻融过程中冻结和融化特征分阴、阳坡进行了分析, 研究了冻融过程中不同深度土壤水分的变化情况, 并探讨了降水对不同深度耕层土壤含水量变化的影响. 结果表明:黑土耕层土壤冻结融化过程分为5个阶段, 历时164 d, 约5.5个月. 阶段I, 秋末冬初黑土耕层土壤开始步入冻结期; 阶段II, 黑土耕层土壤整日处于冻结状态, 阴坡比同样深度的阳坡土壤温度低; 阶段III为黑土耕层土壤稳定冻结期; 阶段IV, 黑土耕层土壤步入昼融夜冻的日循环交替状态, 冻融循环的土层逐渐向深部发展, 阳坡比阴坡融化得更深、更早, 阴坡比阳坡经历冻融循环次数更多; 阶段V为稳定融化期, 在融化过程不存在冻融交替的现象, 直到整个冻层内的土壤全部消融. 各深度位置阴坡土壤温度的最高值出现时间比阳坡晚约0.5 h. 经过整个冻结融化期后, 阴、阳坡各层土壤含水量均大于冻结前, 阴坡土壤含水量比阳坡整体偏低. 在整个冻结融化期, 阳坡地下1 cm、5 cm、10 cm 及15 cm处含水量最大值出现在地下5 cm; 阴坡的含水量整体趋于平稳且在融化期受降水影响明显.     

冻结滞水形成机制的探讨

资料表明，冻结滞水形成机制是在冬季的冻结作用下，包气滞冻土层内产生氢键吸附能，饱和水汽压差和气管薄膜等机制构成冻结势。它具用奶强的吸附能凝聚水分，全副钨气带水和潜水液态，汽态向冻结层迁移富集；形成季节性固态地下水。在冻结期间包气带水盐具有明显倒置分带性：冻结滞水带；过渡水分带；支持毛管水汽化输水带。     

兰州马衔山多年冻土活动层厚度估算及影响因素分析

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青海高原中、 东部多年冻土及寒区环境退化

近年来, 随着全球气候变暖和人类社会经济活动的增强, 处于季节冻土向片状连续多年冻土过渡区的青海高原中、 东部多年冻土退化显著. 巴颜喀拉山南坡清水河地区岛状冻土分布南界向北萎缩5 km; 清水河、 黄河沿、 星星海南岸、 黑河沿岸、 花石峡等岛状冻土和不连续多年冻土出现融化夹层和不衔接多年冻土, 有些地区冻土岛和深埋藏多年冻土消失, 多年冻土上限下降、 季节冻结深度变浅; 片状连续多年冻土地温升高、 冻土厚度减薄. 1991-2010年巴颜喀拉山南北坡不连续多年冻土分布下界分别上升90 m和100 m, 1995-2010年布青山南北坡不连续多年冻土分布下界分别上升80 m和50 m. 造成冻土退化的主要原因为气候变暖, 使得地表年均温度由负变正, 冻结期缩短, 融化期延长, 冻/融指数比缩小. 伴随着冻土退化, 高寒环境也显著退化, 地下水位下降, 植被覆盖度降低, 高寒沼泽湿地和河湖萎缩, 土地荒漠化和沙漠化造成了地表覆被条件改变.