The Use of Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator Ash to Stabilize Dune Sands

Dune sands are problematic soils because they have low shear strength and are susceptible to collapse upon wetting. Dosages of municipal solid waste incinerator ash between 10 and 80?% were used to improve the engineering properties of dune sands. The soil-ash mixtures were allowed to cure for periods from 7 to 90?days. Laboratory tests such as compaction, unconfined compression, shear box and hydraulic conductivity tests were performed to measure the engineering characteristics of the stabilized material. The results showed that the maximum dry density remains approximately constant up to ash content of 30?% and then it decreases with the increase in ash content. The optimum water content increases with the increase in ash content. The unconfined compressive strength substantially increases with ash content up to 30?% and then decreases with the increase in ash content. The angle of friction follows similar trend to the unconfined compressive strength. However, the cohesion shows a steady increase with the ash content. The hydraulic conductivity of the stabilized material consistently decreases with the increase in the ash content. The effect of curing time on the hydraulic conductivity is minimal after 7?days of curing time. However, the unconfined compressive strength and the cohesion slightly increased with curing time up to 90?days.     

Hydro-mechanical evaluation of soil stabilized with cement-kiln dust in arid lands

This study evaluates the potential use of cement-kiln dust (CKD), a waste product from the cement industry, for enhancing the mechanical as well as the hydraulic properties of soils in arid lands. Stabilized products will play a major role in reducing slope failures, pavement damage and the design of containment barriers for hazardous waste in arid lands. Various tests to determine the different physical properties of the stabilized matrix were conducted and the optimum mixture that produces maximum internal energy and minimum hydraulic conductivity was selected. The effect of soaking and unsoaking of the treated specimens on the mechanical properties was also evaluated. The effect of metal ion concentration and conjugate anions on the resultant hydraulic conductivity was evaluated. The optimum percentage of CKD was calculated by using stress-strain data, Newton's divided difference and Simpson's integration technique. The analyses have shown that 6% by weight of CKD is the optimum mix design, which increases the shear strength and decreases the hydraulic conductivity to less than 10^-9 m/s. Therefore, the treated soil could be used as a soil-based barrier layer for containment of hazardous waste.     

垃圾填埋场斑脱土衬里可行性评价

首先对斑脱土衬里(粘土-斑脱土、砂-斑脱土) 进行变水头实验, 得粘土-斑脱土的渗透系数为6.0×10-9~3.0×10-8cm/s, 砂-斑脱土的渗透系数为1.0×10-9~3.0×10-9cm/s.从防渗角度分析, 2种斑脱土混合物均适合作垃圾填埋场的底层衬里.然后对斑脱土衬里进行持水与水迁移实验, 评价斑脱土衬里水的迁移特性.以水迁移实验为基础, 模拟斑脱土衬里与地基5种不同含水量的条件, 对斑脱土衬里进行直接剪切实验, 测定斑脱土衬里的剪切强度及斑脱土衬里与地基接触面的剪切强度.再对斑脱土衬里进行三轴固结不排水实验, 测定其总剪切强度与有效剪切强度.实验结果表明: 地下水具有很大的潜力从地基流向斑脱土衬里, 从而大大提高斑脱土衬里的含水量; 随着含水量的增加, 粘土-斑脱土、砂-斑脱土衬里的抗剪强度逐渐减小.根据实验所获得的抗剪强度参数, 选择日本山谷型垃圾填埋场典型剖面, 对山谷型垃圾填埋场进行稳定性评价.结果表明: 对于角度小于20°的缓倾角山谷型垃圾填埋场, 使用粘土-斑脱土、砂-斑脱土作为底层衬里是稳定的.因此, 2种斑脱土混合物适合作山谷型垃圾填埋场的底层衬里.      

Bearing Capacity of a Model Scale Footing on Crude Oil-Contaminated Sand

Onshore and offshore oil spills contaminate soil. In addition to environmental concerns for ground water pollution and other possible effects, the geotechnical properties of the contaminated soil such as the shear strength and the hydraulic conductivity are also altered. This note is a report of research in progress to evaluate the variation of the shear strength of a sand contaminated by a crude oil and thus the ultimate bearing capacity of shallow foundations. The limited results of the tests reported here relate to only one type of sand and one crude oil. The oil content was varied from zero to 4.2%. Results of direct shear tests for determining the soil friction angle are given. Along with these, laboratory model test results for the ultimate bearing capacity of a surface strip foundation supported by crude oil-contaminated sand are also presented. Based on these test results, the effect of oil contamination in drastically reducing the bearing capacity is discussed.     

Tropical residual soil as compacted soil liners

A series of laboratory tests was conducted on a tropical residual soil, which is widespread and readily available over a considerable part of Peninsular Malaysia, to assess whether it could be compacted as hydraulic barriers in waste disposal landfills. Index properties, swelling potential, cation exchange capacity (CEC), compaction characteristics, and hydraulic conductivity of the soil indicate that it is inorganic, very plastic, inactive (activity <0.75), moderately expansive (modified free swell index is about 3.06), and of fair attenuation capacity (for inorganic contaminants). For hydraulic conductivity measurement, the soil was compacted in rigid-wall permeameter moulds at a variety of water contents and compactive efforts and then permeated with de-aired tap water. The results of hydraulic conductivity tests illustrate that hydraulic conductivity lower than 1×10^–7 cm/s can be achieved using a broad range of water contents and compactive efforts, including water contents dry of optimum. Its shrinkage and strength properties show that it has minimal potential to shrinkage and has adequate strength to support the overburden pressure imposes by the waste body. These findings suggest that the residual soil can be potentially utilized as compacted soil liner material.     

砂-膨润土混合屏障材料渗透性影响因素研究

膨润土因具有渗透性低、阳离子交换能力高等优点被认为是最适合高放废物深地质处置库中屏障系统的缓冲材料,工程实践发现随着水化过程的进行,纯高压实膨润土强度不断降低,并最终影响到工程屏障系统功能的发挥。针对这一问题,在膨润土中加入一定比例的石英砂,可以有效地提高工程屏障的热传导特性、压实性、力学强度和长期稳定性,降低工程造价。本文研究了影响砂-膨润土混合物渗透性的主要因素,包括膨润土含量、粒径分布、含水量和干密度、压实方法以及膨润土类型等。结果表明,砂土混合物渗透性主要受膨润土的渗透性控制,渗透系数随着膨润土含量和干密度的增加而减小,当膨润土含量超过某一界限值后,继续增加膨润土含量对降低渗透系数的作用有限;细颗粒和级配良好的混合物渗透系数小,当土体内部发生渗透侵蚀将增大渗透系数;最优含水量条件下压实得到的渗透系数最低,高于最优含水量压实得到的渗透系数比低于最优含水量压实得到的渗透系数要小。     

渠坡非饱和膨胀土含水率与强度关系试验研究

南水北调中线渠首段渠坡土主要为膨胀土,渠坡膨胀土含水率的变化会影响坡体稳定性。为了探究含水率变化对渠坡稳定性影响的具体特征,对采集自南水北调中线渠首段的渠坡膨胀土进行了滴定直剪试验,获得了渠坡膨胀土抗剪强度指标与含水率的关系曲线,试验结果表明：抗剪强度随含水率增加而明显衰减,衰减过程先快后慢;试样初始含水率越低,黏聚力...     

考虑页岩层理剪切滑移的水力裂缝几何参数计算方法

针对现有页岩气体积压裂层理裂缝扩展模型及其计算方法研究的不足,基于三点弯曲试验,结合数字图像法获取了页岩层理关键力学参数;利用弹性力学理论和线弹簧模型建立了页岩气体积压裂层理裂缝扩展拟三维数学模型,并得到了试验验证;开发了裂缝几何参数计算程序,计算分析了层理参数与压裂施工参数对水力裂缝扩展的影响规律。结果表明：当层理刚度小于10 GPa/m及大于30 GPa/m时,剪切滑移量达到极大值及极小值,且基本保持不变,当层理刚度在10～30 GPa/m之间时,层理刚度与剪切滑移量呈线性负相关关系;当层理密度为5～7条时,主裂缝会沟通更多的层理;当层理强度为5～8 MPa时,水力裂缝易穿层扩展,且能使层理产生剪切滑移,从而生成复杂裂缝;当压裂液排量和压裂液黏度分别在9～12 m3/min和2.5～5m Pa·s范围内时,水力裂缝易穿层扩展,最终形成十字型裂缝,有助于复杂裂缝的形成。该研究对认识页岩层理力学性能及其对层理裂缝扩展规律的影响有一定的指导意义。     

Major factors influencing proppant behaviour and proppant-associated damage mechanisms during hydraulic fracturing

The ultra-low permeability of shale reservoirs necessitates engineering applications such as hydraulic fracturing to enable the extraction of economically viable amounts of gas. In this process, a high-pressure fluid is injected into the reservoir to create a network of fractures. Proppants are solid, spherical, high-strength particles with size range between 8 and 140 mesh (105 μm–2.38 mm), which are injected into the reservoir simultaneously with fracturing fluid to prompt the opening of the fractures created, and they play a major role in the hydraulic fracturing process. As a result, appropriate management of proppants in shale reservoirs based on precise identification of their behaviour in shale reservoirs is necessary, because unexpected proppant performance or behaviour, commonly known as proppant damage mechanisms, can greatly reduce fracture conductivity. Therefore, it is essential to determine the major factors affecting proppant behaviour in order to maintain constant fracture conductivity. Numerous factors have been found in previous studies, and they can be summarized into three major groups: proppant properties, reservoir properties and hydraulic fracturing production, which affect proppant damage mechanisms. In the present paper, case studies have been provided on the determination of potential factors influencing proppant behaviour, followed by a discussion of their effects on fracture conductivity. The aim of this study is to present current opinions on potential factors influencing proppant behaviour based on a comprehensive literature review.     

Determination of hydraulic conductivity of sand-bentonite mixtures for engineering purposes

Pollution of the environment due to leakage from waste repositories is a well-known and wide spread problem. Emphasis has therefore been put on design of liners for such repositories, focusing on hydraulic conductivity and its variation with time, liner composition, water content, compaction etc. The paper addresses the hydraulic conductivity of sand/bentonite mixtures, especially the variation of the hydraulic conductivity as a function of bentonite content, compaction and degree of saturation. In order to better understand the variation of the hydraulic conductivity of a sand–bentonite mixture a new parameter k ₁ has been proposed. The parameter reflects the amount of bentonite per pore volume and can easily be calculated based on the amount of bentonite and the dry density of the soil mixture. Thereby, the hydraulic conductivity can be predicted as a function of different degres of compaction. This method can be used for engineering purposes to predict the hydraulic conductivity at an early stage of a design to get an idea of the required design and hence, cost.     

不同类型储层岩石三轴压缩变形破裂与声发射特征研究

随着页岩气开采、废水回注和CO₂地质封存工程活动的进行,储层应力环境改变诱发地震的问题得到广泛关注,研究储层岩石变形破裂和声发射规律对于理解诱发地震活动具有重要意义。本文选取了页岩、致密砂岩和白云岩开展三轴压缩声发射试验,获取了空间裂缝形态,揭示了不同类型储层岩石的变形破裂过程和声发射特征。结果表明：(1)页岩的扩容应力与峰值应力比最高,其次为白云岩和致密砂岩,表明页岩主要发生脆性破坏。(2)岩石结构对裂缝扩展和强度具有明显影响,页岩层理发育,抗压强度和裂缝形态各向异性显著。当层理角度为0°时,试样发生剪切-拉张复合型破坏。当层理角度为30°和60°时,试样主要发生剪切破坏。当层理角度增大至90°时,试样主要发生拉张破坏。致密砂岩破裂形成剪切主裂缝,白云岩形成两条剪切主裂缝和微裂缝。(3)不同类型储层岩石破裂过程声发射特征差异显著。页岩在扩容应力点附近有少量声发射活动,达到峰值应力时,声发射活动迅速增强。致密砂岩仅在破裂瞬间有少量声发射活动。相比之下,白云岩在裂缝非稳定扩展阶段和峰后阶段声发射活动显著。因此,在工程实践中需要根据微震监测调整施工措施,避免页岩作为储...     

Eu(Ⅲ)溶液对膨润土-砂混合物渗透性能影响研究

在高放废物处置库长期运营过程中包封容器将发生破坏,核素会向外界迁移,缓冲回填材料的水力传导系数是评价处置库工程屏障性能的重要指标。采用柔性壁渗透仪,研究2.0×10-5 mol/L的Eu(III)溶液作为渗入液时膨润土-砂混合物的渗透特性。结果表明,膨润土-砂混合物的水力传导系数K=(2.07⁵.23)×10-10 cm/s;在05.23)×10-10 cm/s;在0⁵0%掺砂率范围内,膨润土-砂混合物吸水膨胀过程中渗透性能随掺砂率增大时没有明显的变化,能够满足高放废物处置库缓冲回填材料低渗透性的要求。使用有效黏土密度的概念,得到膨润土-砂混合物的体积膨胀率随初始有效黏土密度的增大呈指数增大的趋势;混合物水力传导系数的对数值与有效黏土密度存在良好的线性衰减关系;与蒸馏水相比,渗入液(ECDD)为2.0×10-5 mol/L的Eu(III)溶液时,膨润土-砂混合物的水力传导系数较小,可能是由于渗入液黏滞性的影响。     

Effect of fines content and void ratio on the saturated hydraulic conductivity and undrained shear strength of sand–silt mixtures

The hydraulic conductivity represents an important indicator parameter in the generation and redistribution of excess pore pressure of sand–silt mixture soil deposits during earthquakes. This paper aims to determine the relationship between the undrained shear strength (liquefaction resistance) and the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the sand–silt mixtures and how much they are affected by the percentage of low plastic fines (finer than 0.074 mm) and void ratio of the soil. The results of flexible wall permeameter and undrained monotonic triaxial tests carried out on samples reconstituted from Chlef river sand with 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 % non-plastic silt at an effective confining pressure of 100 kPa and two initial relative densities (D _r = 20, 91 %) are presented and discussed. It was found that the undrained shear strength (liquefaction resistance) can be correlated to the fines content, intergranular void ratio and saturated hydraulic conductivity. The results obtained from this study reveal that the saturated hydraulic conductivity (k _sat) of the sand mixed with 50 % low plastic fines can be, in average, four orders of magnitude smaller than that of the clean sand. The results show also that the global void ratio could not be used as a pertinent parameter to explain the undrained shear strength and saturated hydraulic conductivity response of the sand–silt mixtures.     

Effects of coarse-grained material on hydraulic properties and shear strength of top soil

Sidewalk failures associated with top soil of low shear strength are a common problem in urban areas. Mixing top soil with granite chips can be used to increase its permeability and shear strength. The effects of mixing granite chips with top soils on the hydraulic properties and shear strength under saturated and unsaturated conditions were investigated in this study. The results showed that the mixing top soils with granite chips caused changes in several key parameters of the soil–water characteristic curve (e.g., the air-entry value, the residual matric suction, and the residual volumetric water content) and the unsaturated permeability of the top soils. The saturated permeability and shear strength of the soil mixture increased with increasing content of granite chips.     

不同渗透水压下完整泥页岩剪切−渗流特性研究

为了探索高压水力浸润带和消落带岩体在压剪荷载与流体入渗双因素耦合作用下剪切渗流特性的衍化规律,利用自主研发的一套新型岩石剪切−渗流耦合试验系统,对饱水泥页岩进行了常法向荷载条件下不同渗透水压的剪切−渗流耦合试验和剪切蠕变−渗流耦合试验。试验结果表明：（1）随着渗透水压力的增加,饱水泥页岩剪切强度峰值、法向变形峰值以及剪切蠕变破坏强度均有所下降,说明渗透水压力对岩样力学强度具有损伤效果。（2）在剪切−渗流耦合试验过程中,岩样剪应力与法向变形在线弹性变化的末期会出现明显的上下波动现象,并伴有水流流出,剪应力和法向变形的突变点在时间上具有一致性。（3）在剪切蠕变−渗流耦合试验过程中,水流渗出速率与渗透水压力大小呈正相关,随着剪切荷载施加等级的提高,岩样蠕变变形量增大,单位时间内累计渗出水量亦有所提升。     

A coupled poroplastic damage model accounting for cracking effects on both hydraulic and mechanical properties of unsaturated media

Damage induced by microcracking affects not only the mechanical behaviour of geomaterials but also their hydraulic properties. Evaluating these impacts is important for many engineering applications, such as the safety assessment of radioactive waste disposal facilities. This paper presents a new constitutive model accounting simultaneously for the impact of damage on hydraulic and mechanical properties of unsaturated poroplastic geomaterials. The hydro‐mechanical coupling is formulated by means of the thermodynamic framework for partially saturated media, extended by taking into account isotropic damage and plasticity. State and complementary laws are governed by the so‐called plastic effective stress and equivalent pore pressure. Assuming a bimodal pore size distribution for cracked porous media, the hydraulic part (water retention curve and hydraulic conductivity) is modelled using phenomenological functions of damage variable. The participation of damage on both mechanical and hydraulic part enables this model to describe bilateral couplings between them. This coupled model is then validated against a number of experimental data obtained from Callovo‐Oxfordian argillite, which is the possible host rock for a radioactive waste disposal in France. Parametric studies are also carried out to check the consistency and to better demonstrate the bilateral couplings in the model. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Performance evaluation of soil mixtures treated with graphite and used as barrier fill material for high-level radioactive waste repository

Buffer/backfill material is an important engineering barrier in a deep geological repository of high-level radioactive waste (HLW). Its thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) performance is very important for the safe and stable operation of the HLW repository system. Natural graphite powder mixed with sodium bentonite forms a buffer/backfill material that can dissipate heat quickly and provide strong isolation. In this paper, the THM characteristics of bentonite–sand–graphite–polypropylene fiber (BSGF) mixtures, used as a buffer/backfill material, were studied through a series of laboratory tests. The influence of graphite and polypropylene fiber contents on thermal conductivity, swelling pressure, hydraulic conductivity, and strength properties of BSGF mixtures with different sand contents was analyzed. Experimental results indicated that the graphite content, the maximum graphite mesh number, and the initial dry density of bentonite–graphite mixtures influenced the thermal conductivity of bentonite–graphite mixtures. The addition of polypropylene fiber was found to enhance the shear strength and inhibit cracking without significantly affecting the expansivity, permeability, and thermal conductivity of the BSGF mixtures. This study provides a new buffer/backfill material that can improve the stability, functionality, and thermal efficiency of the HLW repository.

     

Stabilization of desert sands using municipal solid waste incinerator ash

This paper presents experimental results on the use of incinerator ash in stabilizing desert sands for possible use in geotechnical engineering applications. The incinerator ash was added in percentages of 2, 4, 8, 10 and 12%, by dry weight of sand. Laboratory tests such as compaction, unconfined compression, shear box and hydraulic conductivity were performed to measure the engineering characteristics of the stabilized material. The results showed substantial improvements in unconfined compressive strength and shear strength parameters (c and φ). Thus, incinerator ash can be used to improve the shear strength characteristics of desert sands. The permeability of the sand–incinerator ash mixture was relatively low.     

Sand–Attapulgite Clay Mixtures as a Landfill Liner

Absrtract This paper investigates the potential use of sand–attapulgite (palygorskite) mixtures as a landfill liner. The sand and attapulgite clay used in this study were brought from Wahiba (eastern Oman) and Al-Shuwamiyah (southern Oman), respectively. Initially the basic properties of the sand and clay were determined. Then the attapulgite clay was added to the sand at 5, 10, 20 and 30% by dry weight of the sand. The sand–attapulgite clay mixtures were subjected to mineralogical, chemical, microfabric and geotechnical analyses. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) qualitative analysis showed that attapulgite is the major clay mineral. The chemical compounds, exchangeable cations and cation exchange capacity (CEC) for the␣samples were determined. The CEC for the sand–clay mixtures is low but increases with the increase in clay content. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) examination showed that the addition of clay developed coating between and around the sand grains which results in filling the voids and reducing the hydraulic conductivity of the sand–clay mixtures. The hydraulic conductivity values for the pure clay and sand + 30% clay mixture prepared at 2% above optimum water content are slightly higher than hydraulic conductivity requirements for landfill liners but can be acceptable. The geotechnical study which included grain size distribution, Atterberg limits, specific gravity, compaction, hydraulic conductivity and shear strength tests showed that the sand+30% clay mixture prepared at 2% above optimum water content can be considered to satisfy the requirements for landfill liners. For all sand–clay mixtures no swelling was recorded and the addition of clay to the sand improved the shear strength.     

Potential Application of Lateritic Soil Stabilized with Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) as Liner in Waste Containment Structures

This study evaluates the applicability of residually derived lateritic soil stabilized with cement kiln dust (CKD), a waste product from the cement manufacturing process as liner in waste repositories. Lateritic soil sample mixed with 0–16 % CKD (by dry weight of the soil) was compacted with the British Standard Light, West African Standard and British Standard Heavy compaction efforts at water contents ranging from the dry to wet of optimum moistures. Geotechnical parameters such as Atterberg limits, compaction characteristics, hydraulic conductivity, unconfined compressive strength and volumetric shrinkage strain were determined. Results indicate that the plasticity index, the maximum dry unit weight and hydraulic conductivity together with the volumetric shrinkage decreased with increased amount of CKD while the optimum moisture content and unconfined compressive strength increased with higher CKD content for all the efforts. When measured properties were compared with standard specifications adopted by most environmental regulatory agencies for the construction of barrier systems in waste containment structures, the resulting values showed substantial compliance. Besides developing an economically sustainable liner material, the present study demonstrated effective utilization of an industrial by-product otherwise considered as waste by the producers, in addition to a systematic expansion in the use of the lateritic soil for geotechnical works.