Detecting a salinity plume in an unconfined sandy aquifer and assessing secondary soil salinization using electromagnetic induction techniques, North Dakota, USA

 Land-use changes on the Sheyenne Delta in southeastern North Dakota, USA, have prompted research on impacts to the unconfined Sheyenne Delta aquifer (SDA). This study examines effects of the saline discharge of a flowing artesian well that taps the Dakota aquifer (DAK) on SDA groundwater chemistry and soil salinity. Objectives were to map the saline plume in the SDA using induction techniques, to assess chloride migration in the SDA, and to evaluate induction sensitivity to moderately saline sands. Induction data, collected in a 2.9-ha grid, were compared to 31 soil profiles analyzed for gravimetric moisture, electrical conductivity, and chloride. Soil salinization is widespread, but only 7% of the area meets the 4-dS/m threshold for saline soils. SDA chloride distribution was determined on transects oriented with and perpendicular to the flow path determined from induction readings. Chloride was detected in the aquifer 550 m from the source, indicating a transport rate of 21 m/yr. Complex recharge and discharge patterns and hummocky relief contribute to a wide chloride plume at this site. A mass balance based on soil-water content and chloride concentration shows that only 4% of the chloride from the DAK well remains in the grid volume. Received, January 1998 · Revised, January 1999 · Accepted, March 1999     

A second review of the international status of engineering geology — encompassing hydrogeology, environmental geology and the applied geosciences

Engineering geology, in 1996, worldwide, was experiencing considerable turmoil due to the uncertain nature of national economies and the general situation of inadequate funds to meet the demands of failing of the national infrastructures that serve citizens. Aside from the previously war-damaged cities of Western Europe, new public service systems of transportation and utilities elsewhere often lagged well behind growth.

It will be some time before international aid and civil engineering contracts are initiated for anything other than humanitarian and basic emergency aid work in these areas.

Many countries in the western hemisphere, eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union and developing nations in particular are still in need of basic water and sewage services as well as repair and replacement of old existing systems. Continued partisan warfare in the Balkan states of Albania, Bosnia, Croatia and Serbia forecast the eventual need for redevelopment. Rumblings of broad-scale economic problems in Far-Eastern economies did little to make overseas contract opportunities in these areas very attractive.

Large consulting firms were challenged by an increasing number of individual and small practices who are prepared to operate on 1970's rates and prices for services and government and industry was taking advantage of that situation. More and more individuals were offering services in engineering geology and associated engineering fields and there was a sense of not having enough work to go around. Hence, price competition was again being promoted. Consequently in both Europe and the Americas, the variability of competence was enlarging and a significant amount of so-called ‘professional ’ work was lacking in overall quality. This was especially evident in ‘Environmental’ areas of work.

This begs the question: ‘Is not engineering geology, or any other aspect of applied geosciences, not environmental in nature and essence, fundamentally and in entirety?’

Environmental restoration demands were still being made by governments, but the pressure to complete such work was being relaxed on account of economics. Our clients were asking for more service at lower fees. Clients were still largely unwilling to openly acknowledge that less money spent on competent engineering geologic consultation means that more risk should be accepted by the owner or operator of projects.     

Variations in sediment yield over the advance and retreat of a calving glacier, Laguna San Rafael, North Patagonian Icefield

Bathymetric and sub-bottom acoustic data were collected in Laguna San Rafael, Chile, to determine sediment yields during the Little Ice Age advance and subsequent retreat of San Rafael Glacier. The sediment volumes and subaqueous landforms imaged are used to interpret the proglacial dynamics and estimate erosion rates from a temperate tidewater glacier over a complete advance-retreat cycle. Sediment yields from San Rafael Glacier averaged 2.7 × 10⁷ m³/a since the end of the Little Ice Age, circa AD 1898, corresponding to average basin-wide erosion rates of 23 ± 9 mm/a; the highest erosion rates, 68 ± 23 mm/a, occurred at the start of the retreat phase, and have since been steadily decreasing. Erosion rates were much lower during glacial advance, averaging at most 7 mm/a, than during retreat. Such large glacial sediment yields over two centuries of advance and retreat suggest that the contribution of sediments stored subglacially cannot account for much of the sediment being delivered to the terminus today. The detailed sub-bottom information of a proglacial lagoon yields important clues as to the timing of erosion, deposition and transfer of glacigenic sediments from orogens to the continental shelves, and the influence of glacier dynamics on this process.     

The relative utility of foraminifera and diatoms for reconstructing late Holocene sea-level change in North Carolina, USA

Foraminifera and diatoms preserved in salt-marsh sediments have been used to produce high-resolution records of Holocene relative sea-level (RSL) change. To determine which of these microfossil groups is most appropriate for this purpose we investigated their relative utility from salt marshes in North Carolina, USA. Regional-scale transfer functions were developed using foraminifera, diatoms and a combination of both (multi-proxy) from three salt marshes (Oregon Inlet, Currituck Barrier Island and Pea Island). We evaluated each approach on the basis of transfer-function performance. Foraminifera, diatoms and multi-proxy-based transfer functions all demonstrated a strong relationship between observed and predicted elevations (r²_jack > 0.74 and RMSEP < 0.05 m), suggesting that they have equal utility. Application of the transfer functions to a fossil core from Salvo to reconstruct former sea levels enabled us to consider relative utility in light of ‘paleo-performance’. Fossil foraminifera had strong modern analogues, whilst diatoms had poor modern analogues making them unreliable. This result reflects the high diversity and site-specific distribution of modern diatoms. Consequently, we used foraminifera to reconstruct RSL change for the period since ∼ AD 1800 using a ²¹⁰Pb- and ¹⁴C-based chronology, and we were able to reconcile this with tide-gauge records.     

Regional and local patterns of low-grade metamorphism in the North Shore Volcanic Group, Minnesota, USA

Abstract The North Shore Volcanic Group in northern Minnesota is part of the Middle Proterozoic Keweenawan sequence, one of the largest plateau lava provinces in the world. The primary geochemistry of the basalts suggests that volcanism occurred in an intracontinental rift environment. The subaerial lava flows, mainly amygdaloidal olivine tholeiites and tholeiites, have undergone low-grade metamorphism from zeolite to lower greenschist facies. On the basis of alteration phases replacing the primary magmatic minerals, infilling amygdales and veins, and replacing secondary minerals, the following zones have been distinguished: (1) thomsonite-scolecite-smectite, (2) heulandite-stilbite-smectite, (3) laumontitechlorite-albite, (4) laumontite-chlorite-albite ± prehnite ± pumpellyite and (5) epidote-chlorite-albite ± actinolite zone. In addition to the overall zonation based on mineral parageneses, zonations in the composition of the Ab content of the newly formed albite replacing primary Ca-rich plagioclase and of the newly formed mafic phyllosilicates are observed within the sequence and within single flows. Mafic phyllosilicates in the upper part of the sequence (mainly smectites and mixed-layer smectite/chlorites) display high Si and Ca + Na + K contents, whereas in the lower part of the sequence the amounts of Si and Ca + Na + K are markedly lower (mainly chlorites and mixed-layer chlorite/smectites). Similar zonations are observed within the individual flows. The albite content of the newly formed plagioclase is highest, and the Si and Ca + Na + K content of the phyllosilicates lowest in the amygdaloidal flow top while the opposite is true for the massive flow interior. The above features suggest that the overall pattern is one of burial-type metamorphism associated with extension in the rift setting. In detail, the mineral assemblages are controlled not only by the stratigraphic position but also by the flow morphology controlling permeability whose effect on the assemblages is most pronounced in the stratigraphically upper parts. This suggests that at the first stages of alteration (lowest grade) the patterns of fluid flow were important effects in controlling the assemblages. At greater burial depth, assemblages are more homogeneous, perhaps representative of a more even and pervasive flow pattern. Using the observed assemblages at face value to define grade and/or facies, different conditions would be assigned within the different morphological flow portions. Thus at low-grade metamorphic conditions it is essential to integrate assemblages from different morphological flow portions in order to define satisfactorily the overall metamorphic conditions.     

青藏高原北羌塘盆地治多地区松赛弄一带火山岩的特征及构造意义

测区松赛弄晚三叠世-带火山岩为-套酸性-中性-基性火山岩组合,由玄武岩、安山岩、英安岩、流纹岩及少量火山碎屑岩等组成.火山岩中SiO2含量为48.89%～88.15%,平均67.44%,TiO2为0.22%～1.85%,平均0.63%,MgO含量0.23%～7.81%,与岛弧钙碱性火山岩相似;高场强元素Nb、Ta、Zr、Hf、Ti等亏损,大离子亲石元素Rb、Sr、Ba等相对富集,(La/Sm)n为1.79～5.19,LREE/HREE值多数在4.08～6.63,属轻稀土元素富集型,δEu多数在0.47～0.99.铕呈负异常;La/Nb多数大于2.00,Nb/Zr>0.04;Th/Ta>4.41,Th×Ta/Hf2>0.042,具有陆缘火山弧的特性.上述特征表明,羌塘盆地治多地区松赛弄一带晚三叠世火山岩产于大陆碰撞与陆缘弧并存的环境.     

Developmental characteristics of aeolian dunes and environmental changes in the adjoining region of Puruogangri ice sheet, North Tibetan Plateau

A large area of moraine sediments and cryogenic weathering products, formed by glacial action and a cold environment, are the main source of aeolian sand in the high and cold region of the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau in China. The evolution of aeolian dunes is closely related to the periglacial environment. Owing to the freezing of dune-land surfaces, the evolution of sand dunes is dominated by expanding dune bases and vertical accretion, thereby forming large barchan dunes. The migration rates of these large barchan dunes are very slow at an average rate of 1.7–0.7 cm·a^–1. The temperature mainly controls the environmental changes in the adjoining region of Puruogangri ice sheet. The ¹⁴C dating of humus layers in the studied area of the sand dune are 10,780±130, 9,549±130, 8,320±110, 7,450±100, 5,970±95, 5,330±90, 4,420±80, 3,460±80, 2,280±70, 980±70 aBP, respectively. The regions high temperature rising up during summer from the southwest monsoon intensity might be an important factor. As long as both water and temperature conditions are suitable, the plants will grow well, sand dunes will be stabilized, forming humus layers. Otherwise, sand dunes are bare and re-activate.     

A 15 000‐year record of climate change in northern New Mexico,USA, inferred from isotopic and elemental contents of bog sediments

Elemental (C, N, Pb) and isotopic (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N) measurements of cored sediment from a small bog in northern New Mexico reveal changes in climate during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. Abrupt increases in Pb concentration and δ¹³C values ca. 14 420 cal. YBP indicate significant runoff to the shallow lake that existed at that time. Weathering and transport of local volcanic rocks resulted in the delivery of Pb‐bearing minerals to the basin, while a ¹³C‐enriched terrestrial vegetation source increased the δ¹³C values of the sedimentary material. Wet conditions developed over a 300 a period and lasted for a few hundred years. The Younger Dryas period (ca. 12 700–11 500 cal. YBP) caused a reduction in terrestrial productivity reflected in decreasing C/N values, δ¹⁵N values consistently greater than 0‰ and low organic content. By contrast, aquatic productivity increased during the second half of this period, evidenced by increasing δ¹³C values at the time of highest abundance of algae. Dry conditions ca. 8 000–6 000 cal. YBP were characterised by low organic carbon content and high Pb concentrations, the latter suggesting enhanced erosion and aeolian transport of volcanic rock. The range in δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N and C/N values in the sedimentary record fall within the range of modern plants, except during the periods of runoff and drought. The sedimentary record provides evidence of natural climate variability in northern New Mexico, including short‐ (multi‐centennial) and long‐(millennial) term episodes during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

岩浆混合作用的类型、标志、机制、模式及其与成矿的关系——以新疆北部为例

新疆北部广泛发育具有岩浆混合特征的岩体,岩体类型主要有钙碱性花岗岩、碱长花岗岩和碱性花岗岩,其中以第一类最为发育;岩体中的暗色包体类型以闪长质为主,成分可从闪长岩、石英闪长岩、石英二长闪长岩,过渡到花岗闪长岩,部分地区可发育辉长质、安山玄武质、安山玢岩质包体;有些地区还发育有岩浆混合岩.该区岩浆混合作用主要形成于四个大地构造演化阶段,即D3-C1交界的洋-陆俯冲期、C1末-C2初的碰撞期、C2-P的后碰撞期和T1的板内期.岩浆混合作用的判别标志有岩体宏观标志(近等轴状)、野外宏观标志(暗色微粒包体发育,有时可见岩浆混合岩)、显微标志(淬冷和矿物不平衡结构)、岩石地球化学标志(线性过渡特征)、年龄(一致)标志等.该区的岩浆混合作用是多级次的,其深部岩浆源区的混合表现为壳幔相互混合作用;混合作用表现出多阶段性,以基性岩浆注入到酸性岩浆为主要方式,由物理混合到化学混合渐变过渡.该区岩浆混合作用与斑岩铜钼金矿床密切相关,其成矿关系模式可概括为:基性岩浆与花岗质岩浆混合产生混合岩浆,经过进一步分异演化形成了含矿岩浆;与岩浆混合作用有关的斑岩铜钼矿的找矿标志为:岩浆混合作用强烈的大岩体内或附近晚期补充侵入的小型斑岩体具有找矿潜力.     

华北克拉通太古宙TTG岩石的时空分布、组成特征及形成演化:综述

华北克拉通具有3.8Ga以上的演化历史,TTG是其地质记录的最重要载体。华北克拉通太古宙(特别是中太古代以前)地质演化在很大程度上与TTG岩石密切相关。在华北克拉通,始太古代(3.6~4.0Ga)TTG岩石仅在鞍本地区被发现,但冀东地区已在多种变质碎屑沉积岩中发现大量3.6~3.88Ga碎屑锆石;古太古代(3.2~3.6Ga)TTG岩石在鞍本、冀东、信阳地区被识别出来;中太古代(2.8~3.2Ga)TTG岩石在鞍本、冀东、胶东、鲁山等地存在;可把新太古代(2.5~2.8Ga)进一步划分为早期和晚期两个阶段:新太古代早期(2.6~2.8Ga)TTG岩石已在10余个地区被发现,新太古代晚期(2.5~2.6Ga)TTG岩石几乎在每一个太古宙基底岩石出露区都存在。野外地质、锆石定年、元素地球化学和Nd-Hf同位素组成研究表明,中太古代以前TTG岩石局部存在,主要分布于Wan et al.(2015)所划分的三个古陆块中;新太古代TTG岩石广泛分布,是陆壳增生最重要时期岩浆作用的产物。TTG岩石类型随时代变化,3.1~3.8Ga和2.7~2.9Ga TTG岩石分别主要为奥长花岗岩和英云闪长岩;2.5~2.6Ga期间花岗闪长岩大规模出现,并有壳源花岗岩广泛分布,表明这时陆壳已有相当的成熟度。奥长花岗岩轻重稀土分异程度从弱到强的时间出现在~3.3Ga;2.5~3.3Ga的TTG岩石轻重稀土分异程度变化很大,表明其形成条件存在很大差异。TTG岩石主要为新生地壳,但也有相当部分为壳内再循环产物或形成过程中受到陆壳物质影响。华北克拉通中太古代以前的主要构造机制是板底垫托或地幔翻转作用,新太古代晚期板块构造体制可能已起作用。     

北祁连塞浦路斯型铜矿床地质地球化学特征对比研究

北祁连奥陶纪典型的塞浦路斯型铜矿床均产出于北祁连山弧后盆地的蛇绿岩中,西段石居里矿床赋存的蛇绿岩带生成环境为近弧的弧后盆地扩张脊环境,东段猪嘴哑吧矿床赋存的蛇绿岩生成环境为近陆的弧后盆地扩张脊环境。东西段构造环境差异导致北祁连山东西段塞浦路斯型铜矿在矿体形态和成矿元素富集程度上存在差异。西段以柱状、似透镜状为主,东段以透镜状为主;成矿元素上东段相比西段更富锌和硫。硫同位素分析,两段均为海水中硫酸盐和玄武岩中硫酸盐混合沉淀结果,东段比西段海水混入程度低。Pb同位素研究显示,Pb主要来自幔源。流体包裹体成分显示西段石居里以海水成因为主,而东段猪嘴哑吧则为火山热液流体成因,成矿温度均为中低温。     

2010—2020年黄河下游河南典型灌区浅层地下水中砷和氟的演化特征及变化机制

豫北平原地处黄河中下游,同时存在着高砷和高氟地下水,但目前这种零星分布区砷和氟的共存机制尚不明确。本文采集了豫北平原332组浅层地下水样品,采用原子荧光光谱法测定砷含量,离子色谱和电感耦合等离子体发射光谱等方法测定氟及其他阴阳离子含量,探讨地下水中砷和氟的空间分布规律,并结合水化学图解和因子分析法提取出影响该区地下水演化的主要因子,以此为思路对该区高砷和高氟地下水的成因机制进行探讨。结果表明：该平原地下水中砷和氟的浓度范围分别为0.0001~0.1900mg/L和0.13~4.94mg/L。高砷地下水主要分布在太行山前冲洪积洼地和黄河决口扇垂向15~80m;高氟地下水分布于黄河沿岸的黄河现代河道影响带垂向7~100m。蒸发浓缩作用、矿物的溶解/解吸附作用和氧化还原环境是控制该区地下水演化的主要因子。氟在因子F1(蒸发浓缩作用)和F2(矿物的溶解/解吸附作用)中分别占有0.214和0.743的载荷,氟浓度与ρ(Na⁺)/[ρ(Na⁺)+ρ(Ca²⁺)]呈正相关,高浓度氟出现在Ca²⁺浓度较低的地下水中。黄河现代河道影响带强烈的蒸发浓缩作用有助于含氟矿物的溶解,黄河水的灌溉增加了地下水中Na⁺浓度,进一步增强了其溶解作用,在这种环境下氟会浓缩并富集在地下水中。砷在因子F3(氧化还原环境)中占有0.728的载荷,与Fe²⁺、NH₄⁺呈正相关,与NO₃^-、SO₄^2-呈负相关,Eh越低,砷浓度越高。太行山前冲洪积洼地和黄河决口扇的还原环境有利于含砷的铁氧化物/氢氧化物发生还原性溶解,从而形成高砷地下水。pH值升高引起的以阴离子形式存在的砷酸根/亚砷酸根/氟化物在矿物表面的解吸附作用有利于该区砷和氟在地下水中共存。然而,该区地下水中砷和氟的相关性并不十分显著,这是由于高砷区高浓度的钙离子不利于氟的富集,而高氟区的弱还原条件不利于含砷铁氧化物/氢氧化物的溶解。本文研究结果探讨了豫北平原地下水中砷和氟的共存机制,进一步丰富了高砷高氟地下水共污染的理论体系。

     

Petrogenesis of the Early Jurassic Nandaling flood basalts in the Yanshan belt, North China Craton: A correlation between magmatic underplating and lithospheric thinning

Integrated geochemical and Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic studies of the Early Jurassic Nandaling flood basalts (NFB) in the Yanshan belt, northern margin of the North China Craton (NCC), are presented in this paper. These sub-alkaline basalts evolved from a more magnesium-rich parental magma through fractional crystallization of olivine and clinopyroxene. The primitive magma of the NFB originated from 2–5% partial melting of spinel to garnet transitional peridotite at about 70–80 km depth in the Mesozoic lithosphere mantle. The NFB contain a distinctive lithospheric component, characterized by Nb (Ta), Th, U and Ti depletions, LREE enrichments, moderate Sr, and low Nd and Pb initial isotopic ratios, as a result of an interaction between lower crust (15–25%) and primitive magma evoked by magmatic underplating at crust–mantle boundary. The Early Jurassic NFB extruded in an intraplate extensional setting related to post-orogenic collapse in the northern margin of the NCC, indicating an event of lithospheric modification earlier than that in the southern margin (Early Cretaceous). The temporal similarity of the Jurassic–Cretaceous mantle-derived mafic rocks to lower crust replacement, and the decoupling of surface shortening with lithospheric thinning during the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous, suggest the important role of magmatic underplating and subsequent crust–mantle interaction accompanied by asthenosphere upwelling on the evolution of the Mesozoic lithosphere of the NCC. The correlation between lithospheric thinning and magmatic underplating may be an important process in continental rifting.     

Volcanological and environmental controls on the Snowdon mineralization,North Wales,UK: A failed volcanogenic massive sulfide system in the Avalon Zone of the British Caledonides

The Snowdon caldera of North Wales is host to base metal sulfide-bearing veins and stockworks, mineralized breccias, disseminated sulfides, and localized zones of semi-massive to massive sulfide, with subordinate magnetite-rich veins. The late Ordovician host volcanic sequence accumulated in a shallow marine, back-arc environment in the Welsh Basin, which forms part of the Avalon Zone of the British and Irish Caledonides. New field evidence, sulfur isotopes, and U-Pb dating indicate that the Snowdon mineralization is genetically and temporally related to Late Ordovician magmatism and caldera formation. It is interpreted to represent volcanogenic pipe-style sulfide mineralization, resulting from focused hydrothermal fluids moving along caldera-related faults and simultaneous dispersal of fluids through the volcaniclastic pile. Sulfur isotope data suggest that, whilst a limited contribution of magmatic S cannot be ruled out, thermochemical reduction of contemporaneous Ordovician seawater sulfate was the dominant mechanism for sulfide production in the Snowdon system, resulting in a mean value of about 12‰ in both the host volcanic strata and the mineralized veins. Despite the tectonic setting being prospective for VMS deposits, strata-bound sulfide accumulations are absent in the caldera. This is attributed to the shallow water depths, which promoted boiling and the formation of sub-seafloor vein-type mineralization. Furthermore, the tectonic instability of the caldera and the high energy, shallow marine environment would have limited preservation of any seafloor deposits. The new U-Pb dates for the base (454.26 ± 0.35 Ma) and top (454.42 ± 0.45 Ma) of the host volcanic rocks, indicate that the Snowdon magmatic activity was short lived, which is likely to have limited the duration and areal extent of the ore-forming system. The absence of massive sulfide mineralization is consistent with the general paucity of economic VMS deposits in the Avalon Zone. Despite the highly prospective geological setting this study further illustrates the importance of volcanic facies mapping and associated paleo-environmental interpretations in VMS exploration.