Stratigraphy and geology of the ignimbrites of Vulsini Volcano,central Italy

Vulsini Volcano, Bolsena District, central Italy is a Quaternary centre eruptions of which have been dominated by the production of ignimbrites. Stratigraphic studies show that there are six major ignimbrite units with individual minimum volumes of 0.5 to 3 km³ and a large number of smaller ignimbrite units, together with pyroclastic surge and pyroclastic fall deposits. It is estimated that at least 90% of the volcanic products are pyroclastic producing a low profile volcano with 1 to 5 slopes.Lithic clasts in the ignimbrite units decrease systematically in size away from the source, but pumice clasts have an irregular size distribution. Grain size characteristics of the ignimbrites are typical of pyroclastic flow deposits with clasts ranging from a metre to a few microns in size. Reverse grading of large pumice clasts and normal grading of large lithic clasts are common in individual flow units. Each ignimbrite is composed of a large number of individual flow units each having a finer grained basal layer. Both sillar and non-welded facies occur. Coherent ignimbrite (sillar) is the result of vapour phase crystallisation in the pore spaces with no deformation of the clasts. The ignimbrites are associated with fine grained air fall ash beds, cross-bedded pyroclastic surge deposits and pumice fall deposits formed in the same eruptions.Chemical analyses show that the ignimbrites have a wide range of composition (50 to 62% SiO₂). Many chemical studies of volcanoes exclude pyroclastic rocks in favour of lavas. The implications and problems of such biased sampling are discussed.Transportation of the ignimbrites is believed to be that of a semi-fluidised debris flow. Viscosities of the pyroclastic flows, estimated from their capacity to transport lithic debris, must have been between 10¹ and 10³ poises. The previously proposed hypothesis that these ignimbrites have formed from a gas super-saturated lava or froth flow is incompatible with their field and grain size characteristics and is rejected.

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Zusammenfassung Der Vulkan Vulsini in Mittelitalien entstand im Quartär und wird von pyroklastischen Lavadecken geprägt. Sechs ausgedehnte Ignimbritmassen (Mengen 0,5 bis 4 km³) und eine gro\e Anzahl kleinerer Ignimbritkörper wurden festgestellt. Die Ignimbrite kommen zusammen mit Pyroklastiten, feinen Aschen und einigen hochtemperierten pyroklastischen surge-Absätzen vor. Die Ignimbrite sind schlecht sortiert, verschwei\t und unverschwei\t. Jeder Ignimbrit besteht aus vielen Lagen, und der Boden jeder Lage ist durch eine feinkörnige Grundlage markiert. Inverse Gradierung gro\er Bimsstein-Fragmente und normale Gradierung gro\er Klastite kommen häufig vor. Die grö\ten Fremdgesteins-Fragmente nehmen mit der Entfernung von der Caldera di Latera ab, nur Ignimbrit C verringert sich mit der Entfernung von der Caldera di Bolsena. Analysen von Bimsstein-Fragmenten der Ignimbrite zeigen eine wechselnde Zusammensetzung (SiO₂ 49–62%). Ein Vergleich der Zusammensetzung der Lava und der Pyroklastika zeigt jedoch, da\ die Magmen, die das pyroklastische Gestein bilden, allgemein kieselsäurereicher entwickelt sind. Die Korngrö\e und die Morphologie der Ignimbrite deuten darauf hin, da\ sie aus dichten Gas/Feststoff-Dispersionen deponiert worden sind, und pyroklastische Lagen werden als durch Gas transportierte Gesteinstrümmer gedeutet.

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Riassunto Il vulcano di Vulsini, nell'Italia Centrale, è un centro di epoca quaternaria nel quale la produzione di colate piroclastiche è stata prédominante. Vi si possono riconoscere sei maggiori ignimbriti di larga mole (volumi 0.5–3 Km³) oltre a un gran numéro di ignimbriti di minor volume, associate a depositi di pyroclastic fall, di ceneri minute e a depositi di spinta piroclastica (base surge) ad alta temperatura, formatesi nelle stesse eruzioni.Le ignimbriti si presentano sia saldate o non saldate e sono scarsemente separate. Ognuno di esse è composto da un insieme di colate individuali la cui base è segnata da uno strato basilare a grana più fine, e nelle quali sono comuni larghi frammenti di pomice a gradazione inversa e larghi frammenti litici di gradazione normale. Per quanto riguarda tutti le maggiori ignimbriti, la mole massima dei frammenti di roccia estranea decresce con l'allontanarsi dalla caldera di Latera, ad eccezione dell'ignimbrite C, per la quale questo avviene allontanandosi dalla caldera di Bolsena. Analisi di frammenti di pomice proveniente dalle ignimbriti mostrano la presenza di una vasta gamma die elementi (SiO₂ 49%–62%), tuttavia dal confronta fra lave e materiali piroclastici risulta che i magmi che formano le rocce piroclastiche sono, in generale, molto più evoluti. La grossezza della grana e le caratteristiche morfologiche delle ignimbriti fanno ritenere che la loro origine sia dovuta al depositarsi di dispersioni di gas densi, poco espansi e di solidi, e che le colate piroclastiche siano da considerarsi come colate di detriti, lubrificati dal gas.

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An example of multicomponent magnetization in welded tuffs: a case study of Upper Cretaceous welded tuffs of eastern Russia

Four distinct components of natural remanent magnetization were isolated from a single site in welded tuffs in the Upper Cretaceous Kisin Group of the Sikhote Alin mountain range, Russia. In order to contribute toward a basis for an interpretation of multicomponent magnetization, rock magnetic experiments were performed on the welded tuffs. All four magnetization components essentially reside in magnetite. The lowest-temperature component up to 300 °C (component A: D=349.3°, I=60.9°, α₉₅=7.3°, N=7) is a present day viscous magnetization. The third-removed component (component C: D=41.4°, I=51.8°, α₉₅=3.5°, N=8), isolated over the temperature range of 450–560 °C, is a primary remanence. The second- and fourth-demagnetized components (component B: D=174.7°, I=−53.1°, α₉₅=21.2°, N=3 and component D: D=188.1°, I=−64.5°, α₉₅=4.0°, N=8, respectively) are secondary magnetizations related to a thermal event in Sikhote Alin between 66 and 51 Ma. Components B and D were acquired through different remagnetization processes. Component B is ascribed to a thermoviscous remanent magnetization carried by single-domain magnetite, and component D is a chemical remanent magnetization.     

Geochemistry of thermal fluids on the volcanic isle of Pantelleria,southern Italy

Chemical analyses of thermal springs and gas emissions on the volcanic island of Pantelleria, southern Italy, suggest the presence, at depth, of a NaCl thermal aquifer near 100°C; 80–90% of the water in this aquifer is fed by rainfall and the remainder of the mixture is seawater. Chemical analyses of the gas emissions reveal that below this shallow aquifer, a deeper hydrothermal degassing system (150°C) may exist. Rising CO₂ causes alterations of the upper aquifer host rocks (mostly pantellerites), favors formation of NaHCO₃ type waters, and causes eventual rpecipitation of CaCO₃ and coprecipitation of MgCO₃ and silica. Comparison of the present chemical data with older data from the literature suggests that the shallow Pantelleria thermal aquifer has increased in salinity and decreased in temperature during the last 25 a. Both effects were apparently caused by increased flow of recent seawater into the system because of increased ground water abstraction in the northern part of the island.     

The occurrence and distribution of Mo and molybdenite in unaltered peralkaline rhyolites from Pantelleria,Italy

Small hexagonal and triangular platelets of molybdenite (MoS₂), 5 to 25 m in diameter, were identified in phenocrysts and matrix glass of unaltered felsic volcanic rocks from Pantelleria, Italy. The MoS₂ occurs commonly in pantellerites (peralkaline rhyolites), rarely in pantelleritic trachytes, and never in trachytes. The occurrence of euhedral MoS₂ platelets in all phenocryst phases, in matrix glass, and even in some melt inclusions indicates that MoS₂ precipitated directly from the peralkaline melt. Despite MoS₂ saturation, the melt (glass) contains greater than 95% of the Mo in Pantellerian rocks: X-ray fluorescence analyses of 20 whole rocks and separated glasses show that whole rocks consistently contain less Mo than corresponding matrix glasses, the differences being in proportion to phenocryst abundances. The Mo contents increase with differentiation from trachytes (2–12 ppm) to pantellerites (15–25 ppm) and correlate positively with incompatible elements such as Th, Y, and Nb. The Mo concentrations, as determined by secondary ion mass spectrometry, are essentially the same in matrix glasses and melt inclusions, showing that Mo did not partition strongly into a volatile fluid phase during outgassing. The high Mo contents of the pantellerites (relative to metaluminous magmas with 1–5 ppm) may be due to several factors: (1) the enhanced stability of highly charged cations (such as Mo⁶⁺, U⁴⁺, and Zr⁴⁺) in peralkaline melts; (2) the rarity of Fe-Ti oxides and litanite into which Mo might normally partition; (3) reduced volatility of Mo in low fO₂, H₂O-poor (1–2 wt%) peralkaline magmas. Geochemical modeling indicates that the precipitation of MoS₂ can be explained simply by the drop in temperature during magmatic differentiation. The occurrence of MoS₂ in pantellerites may result from their high Mo concentrations and low redox state (Ni/NiO=-2.5) relative to metaluminous magmas, causing them to reach MoS₂ saturation at magmatic temperatures. The apparent absence of MoS₂ microphenocrysts in more oxidized, metaluminous rhyolites may indicate that Mo is dissolved primarily as a hexavalent ion in those magmas.     

Late Holocene vertical deformation along the coast of Pantelleria Island (Sicily Channel, Italy)

According to historical reports, the north-eastern coastal sector of the volcanic Pantelleria Island (Sicily Channel, Italy) was uplifted up to 1.0 m a.s.l. in the year preceding the October 1891 offshore eruptive event. To better understand the nature and timing of coastal uplift, a detailed survey of morphological and biological indicators of raised palaeo-shorelines has been carried out along the island coastline. This survey identified raised palaeo-shoreline levels at three elevation ranges: 2.5–4.2 m a.s.l. (highest), 1.5–2.7 m a.s.l. (intermediate) and 0.4–1.0 m a.s.l. (lowest). Radiocarbon dating on samples of corals and vermetids placed tight temporal constraints on the uplifting of the raised shorelines. In general, they indicate that the north-eastern sector of the island, centred on the area of Cala del Gadir, has undergone major uplifting, tilting the island towards the southwest from 900 years ago. Applying accurate corrections for sea-level variations, the total amount of volcano-tectonic uplift can be estimated. Uplift rates up to 5 mm/a suggest that the vertical deformation was caused by inflation processes related to magmatic intrusion along feeding fissures.     

Stable isotopes and archaeological geology: the Carrara marble,northern Italy

The principal marble quarries of Italy for the past 2000 years have been those of Carrara. In Roman times, the marble was exported all over the ancient world. Renaissance quarries were opened up in Seravezza; both the Seravezza and the Carrara quarries have been exploited until today. The correct identification of Carrara marble has always been a problem because it was traded so widely in Roman times and was later used to fabricate broken or lost pieces of classical statuary. Many types of geochemical analysis have been tried in order to find distinctive signatures for the recognition of classical marbles, including trace elements, ESR spectroscopy of Mn, thermoluminescence, and stable isotopic ratios. To date, the most promising has been isotopic ratio analysis of oxygen and carbon.In this study, stable isotopic signatures were investigated as a means for distinguishing: (1) the principal quarry areas of the Carrara Commune: Fossacava, Miseglia, and Torano, and the Seravezza Commune; (2) or merely the largely classical quarries of Carrara from the Renaissance quarries of Seravezza; (3) and, most important, the Carrara quarries from other quarries of Greece, Turkey, Italy, and Tunisia in the classical marble data base.Discriminant analysis (DA) of the isotopic analyses showed that the three quarry areas of a Carrara could not be told apart but that they could be told easily from Seravezza. In addition, a “mineralized” Carrara quarry at Mandria, with buff to yellow rather than white marble, was also distinctive. DA also suggests that Carrara can be told from those quarries with which it is presently confused: Paros, in the Aegean Sea; Marmara, in Turkey; and Pentelikon, near Athens.Sr isotopic analysis showed a range in the Carrara and other marbles of Hettangian (Lower Jurassic) age from 0.70778 to 0.70810 which is very different from values found in Paros and Pentelikon. This suggests that Sr might make a good third discriminator for classical marble.     

Hydrologic and geochemical survey of the lake “Specchio di Venere” (Pantelleria island,Southern Italy)

Hydrological and geochemical studies performed on Lake Specchio di Venere on Pantelleria island (Italy) indicate that this endorheic basin has been formed through upwelling of the water table, and that it is continuously fed by the thermal springs situated on its shores. The lake is periodically stratified both thermally and in salinity, albeit this stratification is rather unstable over time, since meteorological events such as strong rain or wind can determine the mixing of its waters. Periodical analyses of the lake water chemistry show large variations of the salt content due to the yearly evaporation-rain dilution cycle. These processes are also responsible for the saline stratification during steady meteorological conditions. The mineralogical characterisation of the bottom sediments shows the almost exclusive presence of neoformation minerals, mainly carbonates, formed in response to the pH gradient between spring- (pH ≈ 6) and lake-waters (pH ≈ 9). Finally, the CO₂ partial pressures in the lake water slightly exceeding the atmospheric one, are due to the large amounts of CO₂ brought to the lake through the bubbling free gas phase of the thermal springs. Nevertheless the high pH value of the lake water, its small volume and its periodical mixing prevent dangerous built up of this gas.     

Stratigraphy and sedimentology of Jurassic bedded chert overlying ophiolites in the North Apennines, Italy

In the North Apennines of Italy, Upper Jurassic bedded chert stratigraphically overlies ophiolitic rocks and is overlain by Lower to Middle Cretaceous pelagic limestone and shale, and Upper Cretaceous flysch. The bedded chert, best exposed in East Liguria and on Elba, is typically 30–80 m thick, but occasionally reaches 150–200 m thickness. It consists of two main alternating lithologïes: siliceous mudstone (SM) and radiolarite (R). Chert sections commonly show characteristic stratigraphic changes. Lower cherts display a striking rhythmic alternation of R and ferruginous SM beds. In middle cherts, SM beds are much less ferruginous and shalier intercalations are locally present. In upper cherts, R beds are less frequent and SM beds are essentially non-ferruginous. R beds are generally 1–4 cm thick, and consist of 80–90% quartz, 5–15% clays and usually < 1% hematite. They are commonly parallel-laminated, and rarely size-graded. In size-graded beds, large radiolaria are more abundant near the bed base (commonly together with ophiolitic or SM clasts) and small radiolaria more abundant near the bed top. Sorting is poor throughout most R beds. R beds are interpreted as turbidites (cf. Nisbet & Price, 1974). Model calculations suggest that typical settling velocities of radiolaria during redeposition are < 1 cm sec^?1, which is low and of restricted range relative to the 1–10 cm sec^?1 settling velocities of clastic grains of comparable size range. Radiolaria therefore should have only a limited tendency to grade and sort during deposition from a turbulent current. SM beds are commonly 1–7 cm thick, although much thicker ones occur near the base of sections, and consist mainly of 50–70% quartz, 15–35% clays and 0–15% hematite. Microscopic clay-silica aggregates and highly corroded remnants of radiolaria are common. SM beds are interpreted as mainly ambient pelagic sediment which accumulated slowly in topographic lows, and which was modified by near-surface dissolution of biogenic silica. In SM beds which contain two texturally different layers, the lower one is interpreted as the top of the underlying radiolarian turbidite. North Apennine cherts represent the first sediment deposited on oceanic crust formed during the opening of the North Apennine part of the Tethys. The ophiolitic basement had a rugged topography which favoured the redeposition of siliceous sediment. Hematite and local Mn enrichments in SM beds in the lower chert sections represent hydrothermal precipitates inferred to have originated at a spreading axis. During seafloor spreading, accumulation of siliceous sediments progressively reduced the topography. Deposition of ophiolitic detritus within the sediments phased out during early chert sedimentation, and the hydrothermal contribution during early-middle chert sedimentation. As local basins filled, during late chert sedimentation, radiolarian turbidites became less frequent. The first limestones at the top of chert sections are calcareous ooze turbidites derived from above the CCD and deposited slightly below it. Gradual descent of the CCD to ocean floor depths at the end of the Jurassic (Bosellini & Winterer, 1975) led to the replacement of siliceous by carbonate sedimentation.     

Carbonate precipitation in the alkaline lake Specchio di Venere (Pantelleria Island,Italy) and the possible role of microbial mats

Alkaline lakes like the hydrothermally affected lake Specchio di Venere (Pantelleria Island, Central Mediterranean) are typical geological settings harbouring calcified microbial mats. The present work is focused on the discrimination between biotic and abiotic processes driving carbonate precipitation in this lake, using hydrochemical, mineralogical and isotopic data. Hydrochemical analyses demonstrate that the lake is nearly 10−fold supersaturated with regard to aragonite and seasonally reaches hydromagnesite supersaturation. Microscopic observations depict organosedimentary laminated structures consisting of microbial communities and aragonitic precipitates, which are rather disseminated in pores than directly linked to microorganisms. Oxygen isotopic data indicate that authigenic carbonate crystallisation from evaporating water is the dominant precipitation process, further suggested by the absence of textural evidence of diagenetic processes. Conversely, the observed δ¹³C values reflect an influence of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) on carbon fractionation during the precipitation process, due to the selective sequestration of ¹²C in the biomass. The above considerations suggest that at lake Specchio di Venere the carbonate precipitation is mainly of inorganic nature, but a minor role played by biologically influenced processes in microbial mats is not excluded.     

New techniques in rock mass classification: application to welded tuffs at the Nevada Yucca Mountain

Summary Many rock mass classification systems exist to assist the engineer in assessing the rock support requirements for underground design. On-going research in this area is directed at attempting to utilize the fractal dimension and the acoustic emission response of the tuffs at the Nevada Yucca Mountain to further aid in rock mass classification. Acoustic emission response is shown to be correlated with the porosity of the sample. Engineering behaviour of the rock varies dramatically with porosity; events and peak amplitude offer a means to distinguish between fracture porosity and pore porosity and consequently the engineering behaviour of the rock. Fractal dimension is used to characterize the roughness of fracture surfaces. Two fractal dimension calculation methods, one based on the semi-variogram for the surface and the other based on the use of dividers, are applied for this purpose. The divider method is shown to resolve deviation from a straight line; the semi-variogram method is shown to identify statistical similarity to various types of noise.Nomenclature D fractal dimension - AE acoustic emission - b b-value determined from log(frequency) against log(amplitude) plots - (h) semi-variogram function - h lag distance for semi-variogram function - H an exponent term related to fractal dimension asD=2 –H     

Carbonatite in the tuffs of the West Eifel,Germany

Newly-discovered carbonatitic fragments from the West Eifel are described in terms of their petrography and trace-element content.     

Environmental geology problems in the Tyrrhenian coastal area of Santa Marinella, province of Rome, central Italy

 The Tyrrhenian resort of S. Marinella (central Italy) is subjected to significant anthropogenic pressures during the summer vacation period, a common situation all along the Italian coast. Located 65 km NW of Rome on the southern slopes of the Tolfa Mountains, S. Marinella is built on a gently sloping, E–W trending belt which is cut by 14 N–S oriented ephemeral streams that discharge into the Tyrrhenian Sea. The low to medium permeability turbiditic sandstones which outcrop along this belt belong to the Late Cretaceous Pietraforte unit. Three environmental problems are addressed in this study. The first problem is related to the high water supply demand during the summer months which has forced local residents to dig a large number of wells. Extensive pumping from these wells has caused salt-water intrusion into the Pietraforte, thus compromising the domestic use of the groundwater. The second problem consists of the illegal dumping of urban solid waste, material that represents a hazard during significant rain events as well as a possible cause of groundwater contamination. The final issue addressed concerns the flooding potential of the 14 ephemeral streams that cross the inhabited area of S. Marinella, a risk which is highlighted by the disastrous flood which occurred on 2 October 1981 and during the period of the Roman Emperor Settimio Severo (205 A.D.). Some suggestions are proposed to mitigate and contain the effects of these problems. Received: 7 November 1995 / Accepted: 5 December 1996     

Preliminary estimate of CO2 output from Pantelleria Island volcano (Sicily,Italy): evidence of active mantle degassing

Total CO₂ output from fumaroles, bubbling and water dissolved gases and soil gases was investigated at Pantelleria Island volcano, Italy. The preliminary results indicate an overall output of 0.39 Mt a⁻¹ of CO₂ from the island. The main contribution to the total output was from diffuse soil degassing (about 0.32 Mt a⁻¹), followed by dissolved CO₂ (0.034 Mt a⁻¹), focussed soil degassing (0.028 Mt a⁻¹) and bubbling CO₂ (0.013 Mt a⁻¹). The contribution of CO₂ from fumarole gases was found to be negligible (1.4×10⁻⁶ Mt a⁻¹). Carbon-13 values for CO₂ coupled with those for associated He in gases from fumaroles and sites of focussed soil degassing clearly rule out any significant organic CO₂ component and suggest a common mantle origin for these gas species. The inferred mantle source beneath Pantelleria would seem to have peculiar geochemical characteristics, quite distinct from those of mantle producing MORB but compatible with those of magmatic sources of central Mediterranean and central European volcanoes. These findings indicate that the Pantelleria volcanic complex is a site of active mantle degassing that is worthy of attention for future geochemical surveillance of the island.     

Event Stratigraphy, Biostratigraphy and Sequence Stratigraphy of Neoproterozoic in North China

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Ecological geology,environmental geology,geoecology: Contents and relations

The contents and relationships of environmental geology, ecological geology, and geoecology are discussed. It is shown that they differ in their subjects, directions and objects of investigation, as well as their scientific and practical tasks. Hence, these concepts and the spheres of knowledge they determine can be neither identified with nor substituted for each other because this inevitably causes terminological confusion and hampers the development of ecological problems, and not only in geology. Environmental geology, by its content, is a collection of data obtained by traditional geological sciences and has no specially developed conceptual base. It is an anthropocentrically oriented field of geological knowledge, unlike ecological geology, which is oriented biocentrically and has a wider volume. Geoecology is an interdisciplinary science studying the effect of all abiotic spheres of living matter. Ecologically oriented geological sciences are intended to provide information on only one of these spheres—the lithosphere.     

Petrology of palagonite tuffs of Koko Craters,Oahu, Hawaii

Tuff deposits of the Koko Crater group consist largely of alkali basalt glass, either fresh or palagonitized. Most of the deposits are progressively palagonitized at depth, and topographic relations of palagonite on Koko Crater indicate that the palagonite was formed after the cone had been deeply eroded.The principal authigenic minerals in the palagonite tuffs were deposited in following sequence: phillipsite, chabazite, analcime, montmorillonite together with opal, and calcite. The amount of authigenic minerals in a given sample is generally proportional to the amount of palagonite, indicating that the authigenic minerals are produced in palagonitization of glass.Chemical analyses of sideromelane and associated palagonite by the electron microprobe show that about a quarter of the SiO₂, half of the Al₂O₃ and MgO, and three quarters or more of the CaO, Na₂O, and K₂O are lost in converting sideromelane to an equal volume of palagonite. A substantial proportion of these components lost from the sideromelane are precipitated nearby in zeolites, montmorillonite, opal, and calcite.Reaction of sideromelane with percolating ground water at low temperatures accounts for the vertical zoning from relatively fresh tuffs down into palagonite tuffs. The pH and ionic strength of percolating water probably increased with depth by solution and hydrolysis of glass, and where the pH and ionic strength became sufficiently high, the glass reacted to form palagonite and zeolites. Palagonite was formed by a microsolution-precipitation mechanism rather than by hydration or devitrification.     

Evidence of Magma Mixing in the 'Daly Gap' of Alkaline Suites: a Case Study from the Enclaves of Pantelleria (Italy)

The island of Pantelleria consists of trachytes, pantelleritesand minor mildly alkaline basalts. Rocks of intermediate composition(falling in the so-called ‘Daly Gap’) such as mugearites,benmoreites and mafic trachytes occur only in the form of enclavesin trachytes and pantellerites inside the main caldera of theisland (Caldera ‘Cinque Denti’), which collapsedduring the ‘Green Tuff’ ignimbrite eruption at 50ka. The enclaves include volcanic, subvolcanic and intrusiverock types. The enclaves in host trachyte contain traces ofglass; devitrified glass occurs within enclaves in host pantellerites.Minerals in the enclaves show regular compositional variationswith whole-rock silica content. Glass present in the medium-grainedsamples is interpreted to be the result of incipient melting.The major and trace element compositions of the enclaves showregular and linear variations between an evolved mafic magma(hawaiite) and a felsic end-member similar to the ‘GreenTuff’ trachyte. Fractional crystallization modelling ofcompatible and incompatible trace elements (V, Ni, Zr, La, Sm,Lu, Nb, Y, Th) does not reproduce the observed trends. Rocksof intermediate composition within the ‘Daly Gap’can be explained only by magma mixing between an already differentiatedmafic magma (hawaiite) and an anorthoclase-rich trachytic meltin the lower and higher parts, respectively, of a stratifiedmagmatic chamber. Medium-grained enclaves are interpreted asthe result of fragmentation of solidified mixing layers in theroof of the magma chamber during the eruption of the ‘GreenTuff’, when the collapse of the caldera took place. Diffusioncalculations suggest a residence time of <5 days for theenclaves in their host magmas. KEY WORDS: Daly Gap; enclaves; magma mixing; Pantelleria     

A Titaniferous Basalt from the Island of Pantelleria

A new analysis of a highly titaniferous basalt from the Islandof Pantelleria, first described by H. S. Washington, is presented.The new values for both TiO₂and Al₂O₃ differ appreciably fromWashington's and produce marked changes in the calculation ofthe C.I.P.W. norm. The analytical procedures by which the newvalues were obtained are given in outline.     

Military geology of Antietam battlefield, Maryland, USA—geology, terrain, and casualties

The geology of a battlefield, or that which underlies the area in which a military campaign occurs, rarely truly affects the outcome of battle. Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Maryland campaign and the Battle of Antietam fought against Union General George B. McClellan in 1862 during the American Civil War, are however, major exceptions to this rule. Lee used the geology and structure of the area in choosing the invasion route, in a major delaying tactic prior to the battle, and in the battle itself. In this article, we show the affects of geology on the battle by using standard morphometric measures to quantify terrain variables and relate these data to the numbers of killed and wounded during the battle. We also include a field guide to various locations on the battlefield where the relations between geology, terrain, and casualties can easily be seen.     

Stratigraphy, structure and mineralisation of the Akjoujt area, Mauritania

The stratigraphy of the highly deformed and overthrust supracrustal rocks of the Akjoujt area consists of two sequences separated by an angular unconformity. A new stratigraphic framework has been proposed that is virtually the reverse of previously published schemes. The oldest recognisable supracrustal sequence consists of metabasalts overlain by banded iron formations and semipelitic and quartz-rich metasedimentary schists, for which the name Eizzene group has been proposed. This is overlain with angular unconformity by orthoquartzite followed by a suite of siliciclastic rocks, mafic to felsic volcaniclastic rocks, flows and banded iron formations. This well-layered sequence is overlain by poorly layered monotonous submarine metabasalts and coeval dolerites. All the rocks above the unconformity have been assigned to the newly created Oumachoueı̈ma group. The supracrustal rocks of the Akjoujt area are preserved as a complex system of overlapping thrust sheets, representing the disjointed limbs of a large-scale recumbent syncline. Igneous and metamorphic basement, with basal Oumachoueı̈ma group metasedimentary rocks attached, has been overthrust and is preserved in synformal remnants within the supracrustal domain. These are the erosional remnants of refolding by later, upright events. The main tectonic episodes consisted essentially of two periods of thrusting and recumbent folding followed by two episodes of thin-skinned upright folding above the sole thrust. Overthrusting of the suite onto the Archaean Amsaga basement to the northeast along the sole thrust is believed to be a late-stage event. The idiosyncratic Fe–Cu–Au–Mg carbonate mineralisation style of the Akjoujt area shows evidence of having been generated more than once during the evolution of the host rocks. Starting with pre to syn-early thrusting events, the carbonate-rich mineralisation recurred at least until the upright folding. There is strong field evidence for a genetic link to carbonate-rich iron formations by remobilisation, but no evidence of a synvolcanic or synsedimentary mineralising event.