Low-Frequency Variations of the North Atlantic Sea Level Measured by TOPEX/Poseidon Altimetry

Eight years of sea surface height data derived from the TOPEX/Poseidon altimeter, are analyzed in order to identify long- and a-periodic behavior of the North Atlantic sea level. For easy interpolation, sea surface height data are converted into sea surface topography data using the geoid derived from EGM96 to degree 360. Principal Component Analysis is used to identify the most dominant spatial and temporal variations. In order to separate dominant periodic signals, a yearly and a half-yearly oscillation, as well as alias effects from imperfect ocean tide corrections, are estimated independently by a Harmonic Analysis and subtracted. The residuals are smoothed by a 90-day moving average filter and examined once again by a PCA, which identifies a low-frequency variation with a period of approximately 6-7 years and an amplitude of about 1 dm, as well as a large sea level change of partially more than ±1 dm within only few months. This sea level change can also be seen in yearly and seasonal sea level residuals. Furthermore, the analysis shows a significant sea level change in 1998 occurring almost over the whole North Atlantic, which is not clearly identified by the PCA. Similar results are obtained by analyzing sea surface temperature and sea level pressure data.     

Comparison of TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason Altimetry with ARAMIS In Situ Observations in the Tropical Atlantic Ocean

Low frequency variability in the tropical Atlantic is complex and hard to witness due to the weakness of this signal compared to the dominant seasonal one. TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason provide a new tool to enlighten these topics by offering more than 10 years of continuous altimetric series. In the tropical regions, due to the vanishing of the Coriolis parameter, uncertainties of a few centimeters in sea level can result in large errors on geostrophic velocity which will propagate rapidly over the entire basin. Accuracy is then a crucial problem for these areas. The ARAMIS program (Altimétrie sur un Rail Atlantique et Mesures In Situ) has been developed by the French Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) and Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) organizations in order to get a long-term survey of temperature, salinity and pCO2 structures in the tropical Atlantic along a merchant ship line. The first two ARAMIS cruises, in July 2002 and March 2003, were dedicated to Jason validation. The dynamical contrast between ARAMIS1 and ARAMIS2 is first analyzed here in agreement with seasonal variations of surface fluxes and wind forcing. Comparisons with TOPEX/Poseidon and JASON data are then presented in terms of sea level analysis. New geopotential models such as the Earth Gravitational Model 1996 (EGM96) that have become available with a resolution of undulations on the order of 50 km, are checked to get the absolute signal. Finally, the tropical Atlantic surface circulation characteristics are used to point out the agreements/discrepancies between all in situ/satellite products, as geostrophic current will emphasize the sea level results.     

Calculation of Interannual Variations of Sea Level in the Subtropical North Pacific

The interannual variations of sea level at Chichi-jima and five other islands in the subtropical North Pacific are calculated for 1961–95 with a model of Rossby waves excited by wind. The Rossby-wave forcing is significant east of 140°E. Strong forcing of upwelling (downwelling) Rossby wave occurs during El Niño (La Niña) and warm (cold) water anomaly in the eastern equatorial Pacific. The first and second baroclinic modes of Rossby wave are more strongly generated than the barotropic mode in the study area. A higher vertical mode of Rossby wave propagates more slowly and is more decayed by eddy dissipation. The best coefficient of vertical eddy dissipation is determined by comparing the calculated sea level with observation. The variation in sea level at Chichi-jima is successfully calculated, in particular for the long-term change of the mean level between before and after 1986 with a rise in 1986 as well as the variations with periods of two to four years after 1980. It is concluded that variations of sea level at Chichi-jima are produced by wind-forced Rossby waves, the first baroclinic wave primarily and the barotropic wave secondly. The calculation for other islands is less successful. Degree of the success in calculation almost corresponds to a spatial difference in quantity of wind data, and seems to be determined by quality of wind data.     

联合卫星测高和卫星重力数据研究热容海平面变化

首先用卫星测高资料计算了1993～2009年6月的全球平均海平面变化。用GRACE(gravity recovery andclimate experiment)时变重力场系数反演了2003～2009年6月全球平均海水质量变化。联合GRACE和卫星测高资料计算了2003～2009年6月的热容海平面变化,该变化呈上升趋势。用日本气象局Ishii等提供的海温数据计算了1993～2006年的海水引起的平均热膨胀海平面变化,1993～2003年间,全球海洋热膨胀引起的热容海平面呈上升趋势,约占同期平均海平面变化的一半。利用ARGO温盐数据计算了2004～2009年6月平均热容海平面变化,也呈上升态势,只是变化速率有所减慢。     

Calibration of TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason Altimeter Data to Construct a Continuous Record of Mean Sea Level Change

Jason, the successor to the TOPEX/POSEIDON (T/P) mission, has been designed to continue seamlessly the decade-long altimetric sea level record initiated by T/P. Intersatellite calibration has determined the relative bias to an accuracy of 1.6 mm rms. Tide gauge calibration of the T/P record during its original mission shows a drift of -0.1 ± 0.4 mm/year. The tide gauge calibration of 20 months of nominal Jason data indicates a drift of -5.7 ± 1.0 mm/year, which may be attributable to errors in the orbit ephemeris and the Jason Microwave Radiometer. The analysis of T/P and Jason altimeter data over the past decade has resulted in a determination of global mean sea level change of +2.8 ± 0.4 mm/year.     

Accuracy Assessment of the TOPEX/Poseidon Ionosphere Measurements

We conducted an assessment of the TOPEX dual-frequency nadir ionosphere observations in the TOPEX/Poseidon (T/P) GDR by comparing TOPEX with the Center for Orbit Determination in Europe (CODE) Global Ionosphere Map (GIM), the climatological model IRI2001, and the DORIS (onboard T/P) relative ionosphere delays. We investigated the TOPEX (TOPEX Side A and TOPEX Side B altimeters, TSA and TSB, respectively) ionosphere observations for the time period 1995–2001, covering periods of low, intermediate, and high solar activity. Here, we use absolute path delays (at Ku-band frequency of the TOPEX altimeter and with positive signs) rather than Total Electron Content (TEC). We found significant biases between GIM and TOPEX (GIM–TOPEX) nadir ionosphere path delays: ?8.1 ± 0.4 {mm} formal uncertainties and equivalent to 3.7 TECu) and ?9.0 ± 0.7 {mm} (4.1 TECu) for TSA and TSB, respectively, indicating that the TOPEX path delay is longer (or with higher TECu) than GIM. The estimated relative biases vary with latitude and with daytime or nighttime passes. The estimated biases in the path delays (DORIS–TOPEX) are: ?10.9 ± 0.4 {mm} (5.0 TECu) and ?14.8 ± 0.6 {mm} (6.7 TECu), for TSA and TSB, respectively. There is a distinct jump of the DORIS path delays (?3.9 ± 0.7 {mm}, TSA delays longer than TSB delays) at the TSB altimeter switch in February 1999, presumably due to inconsistent DORIS processing. The origin of the bias between GIM (GPS, L-band) and TOPEX (radar altimeter, Ku-band) is currently unknown and warrants further investigation. Finally, the estimated drift rates between GIM and TSA, DORIS and TSA ionosphere path delays for the 6-year study span are ?0.4 mm/yr and ?0.8 mm/yr, respectively, providing a possible error bound for the TOPEX/Poseidon sea level observations during periods of low and intermediate solar activity.     

TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason Equatorial Sea Surface Slope Anomaly in the Atlantic in 2002: Comparison with Wind and Current Measurements at 23W

A time series of velocity profile in the upper 150 m of the equatorial Atlantic was gathered at 23W in 2002 within the PIRATA program. It constitutes the first time series of near surface current measurements simultaneous with altimetric data in the equatorial Atlantic. The surface slope anomaly along the equator is computed from satellite altimetry, and, as a proxy for the pressure gradient along the equator, compared with the wind and near surface current data. In a first step, a time series of the surface slope anomaly along the equator in the Atlantic is computed from the 10-year-long TOPEX/Poseidon sea level anomalies. A sensitivity study establishes the robustness of the calculation. Apart from a 15 cm bias, the equatorial sea surface slope anomalies estimated either from TOPEX/Poseidon or from Jason over the 6-month overlap (Feb.–Aug. 2002) do not reveal drastic differences. We produce two sea surface slope anomaly composite time series for 2002 (one with T/P data, the other with Jason data during the commissioning phase) and compare them to the wind and velocity data at 23W. As expected, the near surface velocity and depth of the upper limit of the equatorial undercurrent (EUC) are extremely well correlated with the surface pressure gradient anomaly. 10-year-long time series of altimetry-derived zonal sea surface slope anomaly and ECMWF ERA40 wind stress are also well correlated. They exhibit similar spectral content and similar anomalous years. This is a first step towards a full analysis of the EUC dynamics using altimetry, PIRATA data (near surface current and subsurface thermohaline structure) and model. These initial comparisons reinforce the utility of Jason measurements for continuing the 10-year and highly accurate TOPEX/Poseidon time series for study of equatorial signals.     

TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason Equatorial Sea Surface Slope Anomaly in the Atlantic in 2002: Comparison with Wind and Current Measurements at 23W

A time series of velocity profile in the upper 150 m of the equatorial Atlantic was gathered at 23W in 2002 within the PIRATA program. It constitutes the first time series of near surface current measurements simultaneous with altimetric data in the equatorial Atlantic. The surface slope anomaly along the equator is computed from satellite altimetry, and, as a proxy for the pressure gradient along the equator, compared with the wind and near surface current data. In a first step, a time series of the surface slope anomaly along the equator in the Atlantic is computed from the 10-year-long TOPEX/Poseidon sea level anomalies. A sensitivity study establishes the robustness of the calculation. Apart from a 15 cm bias, the equatorial sea surface slope anomalies estimated either from TOPEX/Poseidon or from Jason over the 6-month overlap (Feb.-Aug. 2002) do not reveal drastic differences. We produce two sea surface slope anomaly composite time series for 2002 (one with T/P data, the other with Jason data during the commissioning phase) and compare them to the wind and velocity data at 23W. As expected, the near surface velocity and depth of the upper limit of the equatorial undercurrent (EUC) are extremely well correlated with the surface pressure gradient anomaly. 10-year-long time series of altimetry-derived zonal sea surface slope anomaly and ECMWF ERA40 wind stress are also well correlated. They exhibit similar spectral content and similar anomalous years. This is a first step towards a full analysis of the EUC dynamics using altimetry, PIRATA data (near surface current and subsurface thermohaline structure) and model. These initial comparisons reinforce the utility of Jason measurements for continuing the 10-year and highly accurate TOPEX/Poseidon time series for study of equatorial signals.     

Sampling errors of the global mean sea level derived from TOPEX/Poseidon altimetry

Sampling errors of the global mean sea level derived from TOPEX/Poseidon (T/P) altimetry are explored using 31/ 4a of eddy-resolving numerical model outputs for sea level. By definition, the sampling errors would not exist if data were available everywhere at all times. Four problems with increasing and progressively added complexities are examined to understand the causes of the sampling errors. The first problem (P1) explores the error incurred because T/P with turning latitudes near 66° latitudes does not cover the entire globe. The second problem (P2) examines, in addition, the spatial sampling issue because samples are only available along T/P ground tracks. The third problem (P3) adds the additional complexity that sea level at any along track location is sampled only once every 10 d versus every 3 d for the model (i.e., the temporal sampling issue). The fourth problem (P4) incorporates the full complexity with the addition of real T/P data outages. The numerical model (Los Alamos POP model Run 11) conserves the total water volume, thus generating no global mean sea level variation. Yet when the model sea level is sampled in the four problems (with P4 using the real T/P sampling), variations occur as manifestations of the sampling errors. The results show root-mean-squares (rms) sampling errors for P1 of 0.67 (0.75) mm for 10 d (3 d) global mean sea level, 0.78 (0.86) mm for P2, 0.79 mm for P3, and 1.07 mm for P4, whereas the amplitudes of the sampling errors can be as large as 2.0 (2.7) mm for P1, 2.1 (2.7) mm for P2, 2.2 mm for P3, and 2.5 mm for P4. The results clearly show the largest source of the sampling errors to be the lack of global coverage (i.e., P1), which the model has actually underestimated due to its own less-than-global coverage (between latitudes about 77° latitudes). We have extrapolated that a truly global model would show the rms sampling error to be 1.14 (1.28) mm for P1, thus implying a substantially larger sampling error for P4.     

热带大西洋表层环流及其月变化特征的分析

应用1993年4月至2001年3月的TOPEX/Poseidon卫星高度计遥感资料,分析了8 a平均热带大西洋(15°S～25°N,5°～50°W)表层环流结构的月变化特征.研究结果表明:热带大西洋表层环流中高纬度海区流速较小,赤道附近流速较大,表层环流系统大部分流系月变化不明显,部分流系月际波动较显著.具体来说,西南向的北赤道流下半年的纬向流速分量比上半年大.非洲沿岸流在5～11月流向为东北向,在其他月份主要为东南向.北赤道逆流可以分成两部分:25°W以东海区,北赤道逆流常年流向向东,到9月份前后流速达到最大值(约0.25 cm/s);25°W以西海区,7月至翌年1月流向向东,2～6月北赤道逆流减小,并有西向流产生.2°S～2°N,15°W以东海区的南赤道流在1～3月、9～10月流向向东,其他月份流向向西.南赤道流可认为是由南、北两支西向的海流构成,这两支海流的流轴分别位于6°S和1°N,在6～7月北支流速达到最大值0.6 m/s.南美洲纳塔耳东部西北向的北巴西海流流速月际变化不大,在5～6月份流速达到最大值0.3～0.4 m/s.相应的卫星风场遥感资料的分析表明热带大西洋表层环流结构的月变化特征与风场的分布及变化有较好的对应关系.用World Ocean Atlas 2001的月平均温盐数据反演出来的表层地转流场以及卫星跟踪ARGOS漂流浮标观测进行的对比验证表明,上述遥感分析的地转流场结果与水文数据以及海上观测结果一致.     

Sea-Level Variations Measured by the New Altimetry Mission SARAL/AltiKa and its Validation Based on Spatial Patterns and Temporal Curves Using Jason-2, Tide Gauge Data and an Overview of the Annual Sea Level Budget

High-precision satellite altimeters help in measuring the variations in sea level since the early 1990s. After a number of such successful altimetry missions such as Topex/Poseidon, Jason-1, Jason-2, and Envisat, SARAL/AltiKa, a high resolution altimetry mission based on the Ka frequency band that can also cover high latitudinal zones, was launched in February 2013. Even though the data set available from this recent mission is not yet suitable for climate research owing to its short duration, in this study we perform a preliminary validation of SARAL/AltiKa sea-level data. The first part of the validation is the comparison of SARAL/AltiKa and Jason-2 sea-level data between March 2013 and August 2014 in terms of temporal mean spatial pattern. Comparisons in terms of global mean sea-level time series and latitudinal band-based mean time series are also performed. The second part of the validation is the comparison of the SARAL/AltiKa sea-level based time series with several tide gauge records covering the period of our study. Finally, an analysis of the annual sea-level budget with SARAL/AltiKa data, steric sea level, and ocean mass is performed. Results of these preliminary comparisons show good agreement with other sea-level data.     

The Continuous Plankton Recorder survey and the North Atlantic Oscillation: Interannual- to Multidecadal-scale patterns of phytoplankton variability in the North Atlantic Ocean

At interannual to multidecadal time scales, much of the oceanographic and climatic variability in the North Atlantic Ocean can be associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). While evidence suggests that there is a relationship between the NAO and zooplankton dynamics in the North Atlantic Ocean, the phytoplankton response to NAO-induced changes in the environment is less clear. Time series of monthly mean phytoplankton colour values, as compiled by the Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) survey, are analysed to infer relationships between the NAO and phytoplankton dynamics throughout the North Atlantic Ocean. While a few areas display highly significant (p < 0.05) trends in the CPR colour time series during the period 1948–2000, nominally significant (p < 0.20) positive trends are widespread across the basin, particularly on the continental shelves and in a transition zone stretching across the Central North Atlantic. When long-term trends are removed from both the NAO index and CPR colour time series, the correlation between them ceases to be significant. Several hypotheses are proposed to explain the observed variability in the CPR colour and its relationship with climate in the North Atlantic.     

Sea Level Prediction in the Yellow Sea From Satellite Altimetry With a Combined Least Squares-Neural Network Approach

Accessible high-quality observation datasets and proper modeling process are critically required to accurately predict sea level rise in coastal areas. This study focuses on developing and validating a combined least squares-neural network approach applicable to the short-term prediction of sea level variations in the Yellow Sea, where the periodic terms and linear trend of sea level change are fitted and extrapolated using the least squares model, while the prediction of the residual terms is performed by several different types of artificial neural networks. The input and output data used are the sea level anomalies (SLA) time series in the Yellow Sea from 1993 to 2016 derived from ERS-1/2, Topex/Poseidon, Jason-1/2, and Envisat satellite altimetry missions. Tests of different neural network architectures and learning algorithms are performed to assess their applicability for predicting the residuals of SLA time series. Different neural networks satisfactorily provide reliable results and the root mean square errors of the predictions from the proposed combined approach are less than 2?cm and correlation coefficients between the observed and predicted SLA are up to 0.87. Results prove the reliability of the combined least squares-neural network approach on the short-term prediction of sea level variability close to the coast.     

Extension of Satellite Altimetry Jason-2 Sea Level Anomalies Towards the Red Sea Coast Using Polynomial Harmonic Techniques

Satellite altimetry data are facing big challenges near the coasts. These challenges arise due to the fundamental difficulties of correction and land contamination in the foot print, which result in rejection of these data near the coast. Several studies have been carried out to extend these data towards the coast. Over the Red Sea, altimetry data consist of gaps, which extend to about 30–50 km from the coast. Two methods are used for processing and extending Jason-2 satellite altimetry sea level anomalies (SLAs) towards the Red Sea coast; Fourier Series Model (FSM), and the polynomial sum of sine model (SSM). FSM model technique uses Fourier series and statistical analysis reflects strong relationship with both the observation and AVISO data, with strong and positive correlation. The second prediction technique, SSM model, depends on the polynomial sum of sine, and does not reflect any relationship with the observations and AVISO data close to the coast and the correlation coefficient (CC) is weak and negative. The FSM model output results in SLA data significantly better and more accurate than the SSM model output.     

东北大西洋北海渔场鱼类群落结构年际变化研究

根据2001-2015年东北大西洋北海渔场进行的国际底拖网调查渔获数据,采用生物多样性指数和多元统计分析研究该海域群落结构的年际变化,并利用格局转变贯序t检验的方法研究鱼类种群的转变规律,结合环境因素与捕捞因素分析群落结构变化的原因。结果显示:2001-2015年北海渔场共出现280种渔业资源,其中鱼类有222种,资源丰度波动较大;物种多样性整体呈上升趋势。聚类分析和非度量多维标度排序分析表明,研究期间大致分为2001-2003年、2004-2011年和2012-2015年3个阶段。大西洋鲱分别在2004年和2014年种群结构发生格局转变,格局转变指数（RSI）分别为-0.45和0.41;黑线鳕在2003年和2012年格局发生转变,RSI值分别为-0.58和-0.66;黍鲱在2014年格局发生转变,RSI值为2。通过对环境因素与捕捞因素的分析发现,北海渔场群落格局第一次发生转变主要受捕捞因素影响,第二次发生转变主要受环境因素影响。     

火山活动对于北大西洋涛动的激发作用

为了探索北大西洋涛动形成的大尺度大气物理场背景条件和外部强迫因子,通过对比分析、相关分析和环流系统温压场垂直结构分析得到:(1)强火山活动指数距平与冰岛低压和亚速尔高压海平面气压场(SLP)距平总体相关函数符号相反,强火山活动指数与冰岛低压SLP为反相关,与亚速尔高压SLP为正相关,就是说火山活动指数异常引起了高纬度冰岛低压和中低纬度亚速尔高压海平面气压场相反的变化趋势,形成高低纬之间海平面气压场反相振荡;(2)夏季7月亚速尔高压对流层中下层至海平面,温度距平中心和位势高度距平中心距平符号大致正正相对负负相对,说明夏季亚速尔高压为深厚暖性系统,低层温度升高亚速尔高压加强,低层温度降低亚速尔高压减弱,所以火山活动指数与亚速尔高压SLP均呈反相关关系;冬季1月对流层中下层至海平面,温度距平和位势高度距平符号大致正负相对,说明冬季亚速尔高压为浅薄系统,低层温度升高亚速尔高压减弱,低层温度降低亚速尔高压加强,所以火山活动指数与亚速尔高压SLP均呈正相关关系;(3)冬季1月冰岛低压对流层中下层至海平面,温度距平中心和位势高度距平中心距平符号大致正正相对负负相对,说明冬季冰岛低压为深厚冷性系统,低层温度升高冰岛低压减弱,低层温度降低冰岛低压加深,所以火山活动指数与冰岛低压SLP均呈反相关关系;夏季7月对流层中下层至海平面,温度距平和位势高度距平符号大致正负相对,说明夏季冰岛低压为浅薄系统,低层温度升高冰岛低压减弱,低层温度降低冰岛低压加深,所以火山活动指数与冰岛低压SLP均呈正相关关系;(4).由于对流层中下层至海平面冰岛低压和亚速尔高压冬、夏季温压场结构特点基本相反,火山活动指数异常在两个环流系统中引起了相反响应,导致高低纬之间海平面气压场反相振荡,形成了影响广泛的著名的北大西洋涛动现象。     

Temporal Variations in the Dissolved Nutrient Stocks in the Surface Water of the Western North Atlantic Ocean

Changes in patterns of undetectability and molar ratios of dissolved nutrients in the euphotic zone of the oligotrophic western North Atlantic Ocean were investigated utilizing the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study (BATS) data set of the US Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS). Our aim was to examine the temporal dynamics of nutrient stocks over a decade (1989∼1998) and to gain insight into the interactions between the different biotic and abiotic factors underlying BATS. Patterns of nutrient undetectability clearly revealed the depleted nature of the nutrients in surface water at the BATS location, particularly phosphorous. The N:P ratio was consistently far above the nominal Redfield ratio (mean, 38.5) but was significantly lower during the 1993∼1994 period (22.1). Over the same period the proportion of samples depleted in N only increased while the proportion of samples depleted in P only decreased. This indicates an overall reduction of N relative to P in the surface water at BATS during the 1993∼1994 period, the reasons for this anomaly, though, are not clear. The correlation analysis between the biotic and abiotic variables at BATS has indicated some interesting relationships that can help understand some of the parameters affecting nutrient stocks in the euphotic zone and their consequent impacts on marine biota. Although nutrient stocks in the oligotrophic environment are limited, they might be subject to interannual variation that may become anomalous in some cases. These variations might underlay significant feedback mechanisms by affecting marine productivity, the prime factor controlling the sequestration of atmospheric CO₂ by the oceans. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.