Mechanics of eddy processes in the tropical troposphere

Summary It is suggested on the basis of the study of observational data gathered byJ. P. Peixoto that the eddy processes in the tropical regions of the middle troposphere operate in an inverse manner as compared with a normal heat engine. Thus, in common with the situation in the lower stratosphere, the region is characterized by a countergradient horizontal eddy heat transport and a rising of colder air and sinking of warmer air on the scale of the large eddy processes.The research reported in this paper was sponsored by the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory, under Contract Nos. AF19(604)-6108 and AF19(628)-2408.     

A comparative study on the growth of cloud drops by condensation using an air parcel model with and without entrainment

During a study of the growth of cloud drops by condensation the evolution of cloud drop size spectra with height above cloud base was determined for maritime aerosols, and for continental aerosols containing aerosol particles of mixed composition. Air parcel models were used in which the parcel was either completely closed to mass and heat transfer (strictly adiabatic models), or open to heat transfer and to partial or complete mass transfer (entrainment models). It was found that adiabatic models and models which consider the entraining of air devoid of aerosol particles predict drop size distributions which are considerably narrower than those observed in non-precipitating cumulus clouds, and have only a single maximum. On the other hand, relative broad drop size distributions and distributions with a double maximum — as they are observed in atmospheric clouds — are predicted if the entrainment of both air and aerosol particles are considered in the condensation model. Our results support the findings ofWarner (1973) which were obtained for a purely maritime aerosol.     

Harmonic analysis of the mean northern hemisphere water vapor distribution for the year 1950

Summary Harmonic analyses along latitudes 30°, 45° and 60° of the mean northern hemisphere water vapor field are presented. The seasonal variations of these spectra are investigated and the relative contributions of the various scales of mean eddies to the meridional transport of water vapor are calculated. Of special interest is the finding that perturbations of wave number 2, corresponding to the great continents and oceans, are dominant at all three latitudes and of primary importance in effecting the northward transport of water vapor.The research reported in this article was sponsored by the Geophysics Research Directorate, Air Force Cambridge Research Center, under Contract No. AF 19 (604)-2242.     

Measurements of cloud droplet size distributions in seeded warm cumulus clouds

Summary Aircraft observations were made on cloud droplet size distribution in 19 cases of seeded warm cumulus clouds in three meteorologically different regions. An examination of the data suggested the following: (i) In all the 5 cases at Bombay (maritime), and in 6 out of the 7 cases at Poona (modified maritime) the values of median volume diameter, maximum cloud droplet size and liquid water content showed increase after seeding as compared to what they were before. The increases noticed in the median volume diameter ranged up to 48% at Bombay and 478% at Poona. The liquid water content and the maximum droplet size respectively increased upward of 56% and 25% at Bombay and 60% and 31% at Poona. (ii) In 4 out of the 7 cloud cases at Rihand (continental), the values of the parameters referred to above showed increase. The median volume diameter increased up to 372%. The liquid water content and the maximum droplet size increased upward of 160% and 66% respectively. (iii) In the cloud cases wherein the values of the parameters decreased after seeding, the decreases noticed ranged up to 94%. (iv) More unstable conditions prevailed on the days when the seeded clouds showed visible rain than on the days when they did not.     

An investigation into the properties of atmospheric freezing nuclei and sea-salt nuclei under maritime conditions at the West Coast of Ireland

Summary Parallel measurements of the concentration of freezing nuclei and sea-salt particles carried out on the west coast of Ireland during summer 1958 to study the activity of sea-salt particles in the process of ice-nucleation of supercooled clouds are described and discussed. The results indicate that the concentration of freezing nuclei, active above –30°C, has no relationship to that of the sea-salt particles. A pronounced increase of the freezing nucleus concentration was observed during advection from the mainland showing that even under maritime conditions the most active freezing nuclei are particles of continental origin.

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Zusammenfassung Es wird über parallele Messungen der Gefrierkerne und der Seesalzkerne berichtet, die im Sommer 1958 an der irischen Westküste durchgeführt wurden, um die Wirkung der Seesalzkerne für den Gefrierprozess in unterkühlten Wolken zu studieren. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass zwischen der Konzentration der im Temperaturbereich zwischen 0°C und –30°C aktiven Gefrierkerne und den Seesalzkernen keinerlei Beziehung besteht. Eine starke Erhöhung der Gefrierkernzahl bei Advektion von Aerosolen vom Festland deutet an, dass auch unter maritimen Bedingungen, Teilchen kontinentaler Herkunft besonders aktive Gefrierkerne sind.

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Dedicated to Senior ProfessorL. W. Pollak, Ph. D., M.R.I.A. on his seventieth birthday.

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The research reported in this article has been sponsored and supported in part by the Geophysics Research Directorate of the Air Force Cambridge Research Center. Air Research and Development Command, United States Air Force, under Contracts AF 61(052)-26 and AF 61(514)-927, through the European Office, ARDC in Brussels.     

Die Erforschung der Natürlichen Radioaktivität von Wolkenelementen und einige damit verbundene Probleme

Summary During a number of years at Vilnius the sounding of clouds has been carried out from airplanes in order to study the contents of radioactive materials accumulated in cumuli. Two methods for taking samples have been used: 1) the collection on cooled surfaces and 2) using the method of filter paper covered with erythrosin and kept in a special collector within the Venturi tube. In the first case radioactivity has been measured with the help of Geiger-Müller counter and in the second by means of nuclear photo emulsion (sensitive to -particles) which was brought into contact with the filter paper moistened in the cloud. This method has made it possible: 1) to measure radioactivity in local zones of a cloud, 2) to measure radioactivity of separate big drops and 3) to study the composition of -radioactivity contained in cloud particles.The magnitude of specific radioactivity of cloud elements appears to be of the same order with the rain drops and at times even greater than that of the rain samples.There exist two types of the distribution of radioactivity in a cumulus according to the height: 1) an increase of radioactivity from the bottom to maximum at the height of 0.6 part of the cloud's thickness and 2) two maxima of radioactivity at the bottom and in the centre. The latter phenomenon is characteristic of thick cumuli where big radioactive drops apparently fall out from the centre. The distribution of radioactivity at different heights correlates well with cloud's liquid-water.In a cumulus there takes a place a process of accumulation of radioactive aerosol with the accumulation coefficient of 1000. This circumstance points to a very important part played by clouds as accumulators of radioactive materials from the air which continuously filters itself through them. And just by this is expressed one of the properties of clouds as purifiers of the atmosphere from radioactive aerosol, for, as theoretical calculations indicate, the ability of drops to absorbe radioactive aerosol diminishes with the process of cloud droplets growing to the size of rain drops.The composition of radioactive materials in cloud elements is very complex. In drogs there appear nearly all the natural radioactive elements (emitting -particles) which exist in the earth's crust.     

The dynamics and thermodynamics of precipitation loading

A one-dimensional, time-dependent numerical cloud model is used to analyze the factors in the dynamic and thermodynamic equations which lead to a steady-state or nonsteady-state solution for the cloud vertical motion, buoyancy, precipitation, and cloud water fields. ‘Bulk water’ microphysical techniques are used for the cloud, rain, and hail variables. An atmospheric sounding from a severe storm situation is used as initial and environmental conditions, yielding model updrafts of 40 m sec^?1 maximum and more than 10 m sec^?1 over the entire cloud region. ‘Early conversion’ of the cloud water to rain leads to loading of lower portions of the updraft by rain, the formation of appreciable amounts of hail by freezing of the supercooled rain, and subsequent loading of the middle and upper portions of the updraft so that the updraft erodes throughout the cloud depth and the cloud dissipates, yielding a vigorous rain shower. A delay in the conversion of the cloud water to rain results in a steady-state solution, no rain or hail falling through the updraft. A two-dimensional cloud simulation of this same case shows rain and hail in the upper cloud regions recycled in the two-dimensional flow into the updraft near cloud base and a breakdown of the updraft with resultant rainout (negligible hail reaching the ground). The breakdown of the updraft has profound effects on the temperature field within the cloud, causing the lapse rate to deviate from the steady-state condition and approach the initial environmental conditions. The results emphasize the fact that the local change in temperature (and other dependent variables as well) is not independent of the vertical velocity, in general. This has implications for the interpretation of measurements made within clouds.     

Identification of eruption clouds with the landsat satellites

Landsat satellite images were selected for the analysis of a tephraladen eruption cloud and a volcanic fume cloud. A 35 km long eruption plume from Sakurazima Volcano, Kyushu, Japan was viewed by the satellite on December 2, 1972. Multispectral Scanner (MSS) band 4 was density sliced into eight levels. Grey levels over the tephra-laden cumulus, which had formed at the terminus of the eruption plume, were distinct from most of the nearby cumulus clouds. MSS band 4 is the key band for identifying eruption clouds in overcast volcanic regions. A lume cloud from Stromboli, Italy was studied in the same manner. It is easily identified over land areas and for 8 km over water in areas of clear sky, but cannot be distinguished from banks of cumulus clouds.     

Observations of condensation growth determined by entity type mixing

It has been speculated for many years that the development of the droplet spectra in cloud is probably influenced by mixing processes. Various theoretical attempts to broaden the droplet spectra by mixing parcels with different velocity histories has shown that that particular effect is small. Similarly, very simpleuniform entrainment procedures did not lead to cloud drop size spectra which were broad enough, although by producing cloud drop size distributions with a double mode these models did substantially improve the drop size spectra of earlier adiabatic models which only exhibited a single mode.Recently a model based on entraining entities representing moving parcels of cloud air within the cloud was detailed byTelford andChai (1980). This study showed that the mixing in of dry air at cumulus turrets could lead to vertical cycling of diluted parcels, and that this cycling, with continual entrainment across the parcel boundaries, will produce much larger drops, as well as smaller drops of all sizes, in the droplet spectra. The entity entrainment concept studied there appears to apply to the observations of stratus cloud discussed in this paper.This paper presents data taken in marine stratus off the California coast which give a particularly clear example of how such droplet spectra modification occurs in practice. Both large drops, and the spread of the spectra to smaller sizes, occur in relation to other variables in such a way as to be consistent with an entity entrainment explanation, with no other obvious possibility.In a marine stratus cloud just over 200 m thick and many tens of miles in extent we find clear evidence that dry air is mixing in at cloud tops. Strong vertical motion is to be found in the cloud, large sized drops are found in cloud parcels where the mixing gives lower droplet concentrations, and there is evidence that newly formed cloud parcels are warmer and contain many more smaller droplets.The observations show that immediately following entrainment of dry air drop diameters are not reduced appreciably, but, in the same parcels, drop concentrations have been reduced by a factor of ten or more. Further down in the cloud big drops, able to start growth by coalescence, are found associated with low total droplet concentrations.Overall, it seems likely from the consideration of these observations that the formation of the large drops which lead to precipitation processes in clouds depends critically on the mixing in of dry air at cloud tops, and very little on the size of the small drops resulting from the condensation nucleus counts. As a conclusion it appears reasonable to state that if entrainment occurs at cloud tops, then big drops will be formed!     

CAMS云微物理方案的改进及与WRF模式耦合的个例研究

本文在中国气象科学研究院(CAMS)双参数云微物理方案的基础上,增加气溶胶粒子的活化过程,改进原方案中的水汽混合比、云水混合比及云滴数浓度的预报方程,实现对各种水成物(包括云水)的混合比和数浓度的预报.此外,改进后的CAMS云方案被成功耦合到了WRF v3.1中尺度模式.本文利用耦合模式对2009年4月23~24日发生在我国北方地区的一次降水天气过程进行了模拟,将新方案的模拟结果与WRF自带的3个微物理方案进行了比较.结果显示,新方案能够合理地描述地面降水特征,其模拟的雨带分布范围与实测接近,降水中心的强度和位置优于其他3个方案.新方案模拟的云滴数浓度与WDM6方案基本一致,表明加入的气溶胶活化过程是合理的.新方案模拟的其他水成物粒子数浓度与Morrison方案相比有时会有量级的差别,说明粒子数浓度的模拟目前还存在着很大的不确定性,这也是云微物理模式进一步发展的难点.     

Characteristics of Cloud Drop Spectra at Different Levels and with Respect to Cloud Thickness

--Measurements on drop size spectra were made in cumulus clouds over Pune (inland) region on many days during the summer monsoon seasons. In this paper, the measurements in non-raining cumulus clouds made in the years 1984, 1985 and 1986 at different levels and for different cloud thickness have been studied. In general, the drop size spectra broadened with height and the concentration of drops with diameter > 50 wm (N_L), mean volume diameter (MVD), liquid water content (LWC) and dispersion increased with height while the concentration of drops with diameter < 20 wm (N_S) and the total concentration of drops (N_T) decreased with height. The average drop size distributions were unimodal at the lower levels while they were bimodal at the higher levels. High water contents were confined to drops in the size range 5-25 wm at both higher and lower levels. The average drop size spectra were broader and N_L, LWC, MVD and dispersion greater while N_T and N_S smaller for thicker clouds (range of vertical extent 1.1-2.1 km) as compared to those for thinner clouds (range of vertical extent 0.3-1.1 km). Water contents for the drops > 28 wm were higher while those for the drops > 28 wm lower in thicker clouds than in thinner clouds. The average drop size distributions were bimodal in the former case, while they were unimodal in the other case.     

Preliminary laboratory studies of the optical scattering properties of the crystal clouds

Ice crystal clouds have an influence on the radiative budget of the earth; however, the exact size and nature of this influence has yet to be determined. A laboratory cloud chamber experiment has been set up to provide data on the optical scattering behaviour of ice crystals at a visible wavelength in order to gain information which can be used in climate models concerning the radiative characteristics of cirrus clouds. A PMS grey-scale probe is used to monitor simultaneously the cloud microphysical properties in order to correlate these closely with the observed radiative properties. Preliminary results show that ice crystals scatter considerably more at 90° than do water droplets, and that the halo effects are visible in a laboratorygenerated cloud when the ice crystal concentration is sufficiently small to prevent masking from multiple scattering.     

Registrierung des Potentialgradienten,Messung der polaren elektrischen Leitfähigkeit der Luft sowie der relativen Luftradioaktivität und Bestimmung des No2′-Gehaltes von Niederschlägen und Nebeln auf dem Zugspitzplatt (2580 m NN) im Sommer 1955

Zusammenfassung Es wird über die Ergebnisse einer Exkursion auf das Zugspitzplatt (2580 m NN, Wettersteingebirge, Nordalpen) im Sommer 1955 (15.August-21. . September) berichtet. Es wurden dort registriert: Potentialgradient, Temperatur, Feuchte, Windgeschwindigkeit, Sonnenstrahlung. Es wurden gemessen: totale, sowie positive und negative elektrische Leitf?higkeit der Luft (je 950 Messungen), Zahl der Kondensationskerne (1025 Messungen), relative Radioaktivit?t der Luft (70 Messungen über je 4 Stunden), Gehalt von Niederschl?gen und Nebeln (Wolken) an NO′₂-Ionen. Die Auswertung der Ergebnisse erfolgte nach synoptischen Gesichtspunkten unter Verwendung der station?ren luftelektrischen Registrierungen an 6 weiteren Stationen zwischen 3000 und 700 m NN. Es wird anhand von Beispielen gezeigt, dass luftelektrische Registrierungen an Stationen in gr?sserer H?he die M?glichkeit bieten, den elektrischen Aufbau der Atmosph?re in verschiedenartigen Wolken (Schichtwolken, Schauer, Gewitter) und w?hrend Niederschl?gen zu studieren. Das Verhalten des elektrischen Feldes und des Leitungsstromes in Wolken verschiedenen Typs sowie beim übergang des Niederschlages von der festen zur flüssigen Phase und umgekehrt wird beschrieben. Zahlreiche Messungen der elektrischen Leitf?higkeit geben Aufschluss über ihr Verhalten im Bereich sonnenbeschienener Nebel und Wolkenteile, im Bereich von Abwind aus Quellwolken-K?pfen und im Bereich von Abwind unter n?chtlichen Inversionen. Die gemessenen NO′₂-Konzentrationen in Niederschl?gen und Nebeln stehen in eindeutiger Korrelation zum elektrischen Aufbau und der elektrischen Aktivit?t der Wolken. Die Radioaktivit?t der Luft wird in den Nordalpen stark von der Windrichtung bestimmt; Maximum besteht bei Wind aus SE-SW (Herkunft der radioaktiven Stoffe: Eruptivgesteine der Zentralalpen). Zahlreiche meteorologische Einflüsse auf die Luftradioaktivit?t werden diskutiert. Es wird nachgewiesen, dass zum Verst?ndnis der Beziehung zwischen luftelektrischen Gr?ssen und Konvektion allein die Erfassung meteorologischer Indikatoren (Dampfdruck, Kernzahl) nicht ausreicht. Der Zusammenhang wird durch die schwankende Luftradioaktivit?t stark modifiziert. Dies gilt nicht nur für die reine Konvektion sondern auch für den Durchgang von Inversionen. An der Oberseite von Inversionen fanden wir eine dünne Schicht mit sehr hoher Leitf?higkeit. Auch in der Inversionsschicht selbst ist die Leitf?higkeit trotz grossem Kerngehalt relativ hoch. Bei Darstellung des Zusammenhanges zwischen Leitf?higkeit der Luft und Kernzahl ist die Luftradioaktivit?t als Parameter einzuführen. Die Tagesg?nge luftelektrischer Gr?ssen (7 Stationen) und meteorologischer Gr?ssen (3 Stationen) an Strahlungstagen werden synoptisch betrachtet.

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Summary The results of an excursion are reported, which was carried out to the ?Zugspitzplatt? (2580 m NN; Wetterstein Mountains, Northern Alps) from 15 August to 21 September 1955. Potential gradient, temperature, humidity, wind velocity, and solar radiation were recorded there, and moreover measurements were carried out of the magnitudes: total as well as positive and negative electric conductivity of the air (950 measurements each), number of condensation nuclei (1025 measurements), relative radioactivity of the air (70 measurements, each covering four hours), and NO′₂-ion contents of precipitations and fogs (clouds). For the synoptic evaluation of the results, the records of 6 further atmospheric electric stations were used, which are situated at fixed places between 700 and 3000 m NN. Examples are given to show that atmospheric electric recordings at high level stations enable us to study the electric structure of the atmosphere during precipitations and in clouds of different kind (sheet clouds, shower and thunderstorm clouds). The behaviour of electric field and conduction current in clouds of different types is described as well as in cases where precipitation changes from the solid into the liquid state and vice versa. Numerous measurements give information about the behaviour of the electric conductivity of the air in the areas of: fogs and cloud fragments irradiated by the sun, downward currents from cumulus congestus tops, and downward currents below nocturnal inversions. There is a clear correlation between the NO′₂-ion concentration measured in precipitations and fogs, and the electric structure and electric activity of the clouds. In the Northern Alps, the radioactivity of the air is highly influenced by the wind; the maximum of radioactivity is found when the wind comes from SE-SW (origin of the radioactive substances: igneous rocks in the Central Alps). Numerous meteorological influences on the atmospheric radioactivity are discussed. It is shown that the consideration of meteorological indicators alone, as pressure of water vapour and number of nuclei, is not sufficient to account for the correlation between atmospheric electric magnitudes and convection. This correlation is modified, to a high degree, by the fluctuations of atmospheric radioactivity. This is true not only of convection processes but also of inversion passages. On the upper surface of inversions we found a thin layer of very high conductivity. In the inversion layer itself, the conductivity is also relatively high, though there are many nuclei. When the correlation between atmospheric conductivity and number of nuclei is represented, the atmospheric radioactivity has to be introduced as a parameter. - The diurnal variations of atmospheric electric (7 stations) and meteorological (3 stations) magnitudes, on radiation days, are studied synoptically.

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The research reported in this article has been sponsored by the Geophysics Research Directorate of the Air Force Cambridge Research Center, Air Research and Development Command, United States Air Force, under Contract AF (514)-732-C, through the European Office, ARDC.

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Dr. rer. nat.Reinhold Reiter,München, 9, Ravennastrasse, 62.     

Extinction in a photo-electric nucleus counter using adiabatic expansion of 1.21 pressure ratio achieved by increasing or decreasing the original pressure

Summary Comparisons were made of the extinctions as measured with a photoelectric condensation nucleus counter, Dublin School of Cosmic Physics Model 1957, when the «over-pressure method» or the «under-pressure method» with equal pressure expansion ratios were used for producing the adiabatic cooling of the sample in, the fogtube of the counter. Due to theSchlarb effect the extinction measured by the second method is smaller than that by the first. Tables and graphs for converting the extinction obtained by one method into that by the other are given. The advantages of the underpressure method are given and discussed.

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Zusammenfassung Es wird über die Vergleichung der Extinktionen, welche mit einem photo-elektrischen Kondensationskernzähler Modell 1957 der Schule für kosmische Physik in Dublin gemessen werden, berichtet, wenn, bei gleichem Druckexpansions-Verhältnis, die Druckerhöhungs- oder die Expansionsmethode in ein partielles Vakuum für die Erzeugung der adiabatischen Abkühlung der im Nebelrohr des Kernzählers eingeschlossenen Aerosolprobe benützt wird. Wie erwartet, ist als Folge desSchlarb-Effektes die mit der zweiten Methode gemessene Extinktion kleiner. Tabellen und Kurven werden mitgeteilt, welche die Umwandlung der mit der einen Methode erhaltenen Extinktion in jene der anderen ermöglichen, und die Vorteile der Vakuum-Expansions-Methode diskutiert.

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The research reported in this article has been supported in part by the Geophysics Research Directorate of the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, through the European Office of the Air Research Division, United States Air Force under Contract AF 61 (052)-26 and by the Instrumentation Engineering Physics & Analysis Laboratory of the General Electric Co. Schenectady, New York under Retainer Agreement.     

Bemerkungen zu den «Januar-Singularitäten» der Konzentration atmosphärischer Gefrierkerne

Zusammenfassung Messungen der Gefrierkernkonzentration während der Jahre 1957 und 1958 zeigten im Verlauf des Monats Januar markante Spitzenwerte, die zeitlich mit den vonE.G. Bowen vorhergesagten Maxima übereinstimmten. Da es große Schwierigkeiten bereitet, das Auftreten dieser Maxima durch die «Meteorstaubhypothese» zu erklären, wird auf Umstellungen der Zirkulation der Atmosphäre im Januar hingewiesen, die möglicherweise diese Schwankungen der Gefrierkernkonzentration auslösen können.

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Summary Investigations on freezing nuclei show characteristic anomalies of the concentration during January 1957 and 1958. These anomalies fit in the schedule predicted byE.G. Bowen for the occurrence of high values of freezing nuclei. Since the explanation on the basis of the meteor-dust theory appears difficult, fluctuations of the atmospheric circulation during January may be responsible for the peak-values of the freezing nuclei concentration.

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The research reported in this article has been sponsored and supported in part by the Geophysics Research Directorate, Air Force Cambridge Research Center, ARDC, under contract AF 61 (514)-927 through the European Office, ARDC.     

Rain from shallow convective clouds—Maritime and continental

Work done initially with Y. Ogura and later by the present author was reviewed, with special emphasis on physical concepts in a cloud model. The present paper consists of two parts: a warm rain study and a graupel cloud model. The process of continuous improvement on physical ideas taken to formulate warm rain are described in the first part of this paper. It is shown that the number concentration of cloud droplets is the most sensitive factor in determining rainfall, and that there is a critical drop size distribution for initiation of rain. The second part describes a graupel cloud model and shows that graupel formation is the mechanism most likely to lead to precipitation from continental shallow convective clouds.     

Untersuchungen über atmosphärische Spurenstoffe und ihre Bedeutung für die Chemie der Niederschläge

Zusammenfassung Nach einer kurzen Einführung über die Methoden der chemischen Analyse atmosphärischer Spurenstoffe und einer Übersicht über die natürlichen Quellen der verschiedenen Spurengase wird über Meßergebnisse an verschiedenen kontinentalen Meßplätzen berichtet. Die Ergebnisse werden denjenigen vonJunge an maritimen Orten gegenübergestellt. Insbesondere wurden die in 3000 m Höhe auf der Zugspitze ermittelten Daten in Abhängigkeit von der vertikalen Temperaturschichtung ausgewertet. In einem zweiten Abschnitt wird die Beziehung zwischen atmosphärischen Spurenstoffen und der Chemie der Niederschläge behandelt. Dabei wird die Bedeutung der Spurengase für den Gehalt des Regenwassers an verschiedenen chemischen Komponenten herausgestellt. Abschliessend werden die Auswertungen über den Zusammenhang zwischen der Konzentration natürlicher Spurenstoffe im Regen und der Niederschlagshöhe besprochen.

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Summary After a short introduction on the methods of chemical analysis of atmospheric trace substances and a survey on the natural sources of the different atmospheric trace gases, new results of measurements carried out at different continental locations are communicated. The results are compared with those gained byJunge at maritime stations. In particular the data gained on the summit of Zugspitze at 3000 m altitude, were evaluated with respect to the vertical temperature gradient of the atmosphere. In a second chapter the relation between atmospheric trace substances and the chemistry of precipitation is discussed. In this connection the importance of gas-traces for the concentration of chemical matter in rainwater is stressed. Finally the relationship between the concentration of trace-substances in rain and the amount of precipitation of individual rainfalls is presented.

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The research reported in this article has been sponsored and supported in part by the Geophysics Research Directorate, Air Force Cambridge Research Center, under contract AF 61 (052)-249 through the European Office, ARDC.-Erweiterte Fassung eines Vortrags, gehalten auf der XII. Generalversammlung der IUGG in Helsinki 1960.     

Jet stream clouds in the Middle East

Summary A time cross-section was constructed for Cairo during the period 10–31 Dec. 57. The outstanding feature of this cross-section is the periodic existence of high wind maxima associated with high cloud formation. A method was suggested for the location of high wind centers from the thermal field only. Moreover, the climatological means of high clouds showed quick changes in the period of the Jet Stream migration. This has been taken as an evidence of the relation between the subtropical Jet Stream and high cloud formation in the region.Presented by Prof.M. G. El-Fandy     

A simple theory for the vertical structure of the tropical atmosphere

It is suggested that the gross mean vertical structure of the undisturbed tropical atmosphere may be understood in terms of convective boundary layers driven in different ways and on different time scales by the evaporation of water from the sea surface. The mixed layer on a short time scale is driven partly by the buoyancy produced by the light weight of the water vapor; the trade cumulus layer on an intermediate time scale by the buoyancy (but not heating) produced by the condensation of the water vapor in shallow trade cumulus clouds; and the troposphere itself on a long time scale by the buoyancyand heating produced by the condensation of the water vapor in the deep cumulonimbus clouds.May 1985This paper was issued as a Harvard University report in 1974. For this version only Section 5 has been rewritten. There has been sufficient interest in this work over the years to warrant making it more widely available through the open literature.Contribution No. 783 from NOAA/Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory     

中国东部层积云发展过程中云微物理特征的演变

基于2007—2010年的CloudSat卫星观测数据,以云层液态水路径为指标将层积云的发展过程划分为五个阶段,对比研究了中国东部降水与非降水层积云发展过程中云微物理特征和云微物理机制的演变,并分析了其海陆差异.研究表明:非降水层积云中,云滴增长主要通过凝结过程完成,但云滴的凝结增长有限,难以形成降水,在非降水层积云发展的旺盛阶段,云层中上部云滴发生较弱的碰并过程.降水层积云中云滴碰并增长活跃,当云层液态水路径小于500 g·m~(-2)时,云滴在从云顶下落至云底的过程中持续碰并,并在云底附近出现云水向雨水的转化;当降水层积云液态水路径超过500 g·m~(-2)时,云滴碰并增长主要发生在云层上部,在云层中部,云液态水含量、液态粒子数浓度和液态粒子有效半径达到最大,云水向雨水的转化最为活跃.层积云微物理特征的海陆差异主要是由海陆上空气溶胶浓度和云中上升气流强度不同导致的.在非降水层积云中下部,陆地丰富的气溶胶为云滴凝结增长提供了充足的云凝结核,因而云微物理量的量值在陆地上空更大,而在云层中上部,云滴凝结增长达到极限,海洋充足的水汽输送使云微物理量的量值在海洋上空更大.当降水层积云液态水路径大于500 g·m~(-2)时,陆地层积云中更强的上升气流使大量云滴在云层中上部累积滞留,云滴碰并增长活跃,云层中上部云微物理量的量值在陆地上空更大.