湖南香花岭锡多金属矿床同位素地球化学研究

笔者对湖南香花岭锡多金属矿床成矿期不同的矿物组合进行矿物包裹体温度和硫、铅同位素测定,获得了锡石-硫化物阶段平均-温度为350℃,硫化物阶段平均均-温度为250℃.锡石-硫化物中黄铁矿的δ34为-1.O‰～+5.4‰;闪锌矿的δ34S为+0.8‰-+5.8‰;磁黄铁矿的δ34S为+1.5‰～5.2‰;方铅矿的δ34S为-1.0‰+3.6‰,具有变化范围小,组成稳定的特点.方铅矿的206Pb/204Pb值为17.785～19.341,207Pb/204Pb值为15.416～16.452,208Pb/204Pb值为38.357～42.579.硫同位素指示硫来源于岩浆,铅同位素指示是多来源.     

新疆可可塔勒铅锌矿床形成硫铅同位素地球化学证据

对新疆可可塔勒铅锌矿床物理化学条件和硫铅同位素研究,获得矿床形成温度为300℃;logfo2为-32.75～-33.91; logf2为-6.75～-10.00;pH值为5.3～7.0.矿石和脉石的206 Pb/204Pb比值为18.001～18.200,207pb/204 Pb比值为15.480～15.705,208Pb/204 Pb比值为37.605～38.861.硫化物的206Pb/204Pb比值为18.001～18.176,207pb/204 Pb比值为15.480～15.634,208Pb/204 Pb比值为37.605～38.027;铁帽的206Pb/204Pb比值为18.017～18.200,207pb/204Pb比值为15.509～15.617,208pb/204 Pb比值为37.833～38.283;重晶石和石英的206 pb/204 Pb比值为18.014～18.027,207pb/204 Pb比值为15.482～15.495,208Pb/204Pb比值为37.632～37.675.硫化物的δ34S值为-15.8‰～+5.1‰,其中黄铁矿的δ34S值为-14.3‰～+5.1‰,方铅矿的δ34S值为-15.8‰～-1.0‰,磁黄铁矿的δ34S值为-14.6‰～-1.4‰,闪锌矿的δ34S值为-14.5‰～-11.3‰.硫同位素指示硫来源于岩浆,铅同位素指示铅是多来源.     

新疆霍什布拉克铅锌矿床硫铅同位素地球化学研究

对新疆霍什布拉克铅锌矿床硫化物硫、铅同位素测定,获得成矿早期黄铁矿的δ34S值为-12.1‰～-8.5‰,闪锌矿的δ34S值为-17.6‰,方铅矿的δ34S值为-18.8‰;晚期黄铁矿的δ34S值为+12.8‰～+22.2‰,闪锌矿的δ34S值为+20.0‰～+24.2‰,方铅矿的δ34S值为+14.4‰+22.2‰.成矿从早到晚,硫同位素由大的负值变化到大的正值,方铅矿的206 Pb/204 Pb比值为17.900-18.086,207Pb/204Pb比值为15.586-15.732,208Pb/204Pb比值为37.997-38.381;黄铁矿的206Pb/204Pb比值为17.950,207 pb/204Pb比值为15.633,208 pb/204 Pb比值为38.144.灰岩的206pb/204 Pb比值为18.156-18.875,207Pb/204Pb比值为15.396-15.855,208Pb/204Pb比值为37.631-38.967.硫同位素指示硫来源于海水硫酸盐还原硫.铅同位素指示至少有两上以上来源.     

江西相山矿田硫铅同位素地球化学特征

为查明江西相山矿田内铅锌矿和铀矿床的成矿物质来源,对与铅锌矿、铀矿有关的矿石矿物进行了S、Pb同位素研究,结果显示,与铅锌矿有关的金属矿物δ34S值为1.3‰~4.7‰,同铀矿伴生的黄铁矿δ34S值为7.9‰~14.9‰;赋矿围岩、基底变质岩、铀矿床黄铁矿和铅锌矿硫化物的206Pb/204Pb、207Pb/204Pb及208Pb/204Pb比值整体上有逐渐降低的趋势,均表现出放射性成因铅的特征,不同岩石或矿石的样品铅同位素组成范围基本一致。结合前人研究,说明铅锌矿和铀矿并非来自同一次成矿事件;铅锌矿的成矿期次具有阶段性,硫源具有均一性,主要以深部硫源为主,在其向上迁移的过程中有少量基底变质岩中的硫加入,按照硫化物共生矿物对计算出铅锌矿的成矿温度:早阶段为424~382℃,晚阶段为331~290℃,属中高温热液矿床;铀矿的硫源具有地层硫特征,主要来自于基底变质沉积岩。铀矿床伴生的黄铁矿铅同位素组成比铅锌矿硫化矿的铅同位素组成更具放射性成因铅,铅锌矿的铅源主要与上地壳基底变质岩有关,铀矿的铅源主要以相山火山-侵入杂岩体为主,但是可能还具有少量幔源铅参与。     

湘南铜山岭铜多金属矿床成矿物质来源的 S、Pb、C同位素约束

铜山岭铜多金属矿床是湘南W、Sn、Pb、Zn、Cu多金属矿集区的代表性矿床,本文对其不同类型岩石和矿石矿物进行了S、Pb、C同位素组成对比研究。矿石硫化物的δ34 S值变化范围为-1.9‰~5.7‰,平均值为2.6‰,硫主要来源于硫同位素组成均一化的岩浆。硫化物硫同位素平衡温度表明,矿床主要成矿温度为134~339℃。矿石铅的206 Pb/204 Pb、207 Pb/204 Pb、208 Pb/204 Pb比值分别为18.256~18.856、15.726~15.877、38.352~39.430;岩体岩石铅的206Pb/204Pb、207Pb/204Pb、208Pb/204Pb比值分别为18.617~18.805、15.721~15.786、38.923~39.073;两者铅同位素组成相同,都主要为上地壳铅,是由同一岩浆体系分异形成,可能来源于古老基底岩石。不同类型岩石、方解石矿物的δ13 CPDB值为-9.88‰~1.32‰,δ18 OSMOW值为11.67‰~17.68‰,从矽卡岩矿体到距岩体稍远的围岩地层,方解石矿物的δ13 CPDB、δ18 OSMOW值逐渐增大,成矿流体中的碳早期可能主要来源于岩浆,在成矿过程中有部分碳酸盐岩地层碳的加入。铜山岭矿床成矿物质主要来源于岩浆,赋矿地层对矿床成矿物质来源作用不显著,仅提供了少量成矿物质。     

广东大宝山多金属矿床成矿物质来源同位素证据

笔者对大宝山多金属矿床矿石和脉石矿物进行铅、硫、氢和氧同位素组成测定,获得硫化物的206Pb/204Pb值为17.930～18.785;207Pb/204Pb值为15.491～15.772;208Pb/204Pb值为37.990～40.990,并组成良好的线性关系。泥盆系地层中黄铁矿的δ34S为-22.5‰～+17.9‰,矿床硫化物的δ34S为-2.4‰～+4.6‰。黄铁矿、闪锌矿和方铅矿共生矿物对,具有δ34Spy>δ34Ssp>δ34Sgn,用磁黄铁矿的硫同位素组成估算出δ34S∑S为2‰±3‰。硫化物包裹体的氢同位素在-101‰～-123‰之间,与硫化物共生石英的氧同位素为+9.3‰～+17.9‰,换算成水的氧同位素为+0.3‰～+3.9‰,表明成矿热液来源较为复杂。     

西藏夏垅隐爆角砾岩型铅锌银矿床成矿流体及成矿物质来源

夏垅铅锌银矿床位于冈底斯斑岩铜钼成矿带的西端,产于花岗岩基中,属于隐爆角砾岩型矿床。本文对其流体包裹体及H-O-S-Pb同位素组成进行了分析。成矿流体物理性质具有从中高温(240~340℃)、低盐度(2.2%~3.8%NaCl eqv)向低温(160~180℃)、低盐度(0.8%~1.7%NaCl eqv)演化的特征。矿石中石英的δD值为-156‰~-145‰,δ18 O值为-0.4‰~7.1‰,按流体包裹体均一温度换算的δ18 OH2O值为-16.7‰~-3.0‰,表明成矿流体来源于岩浆水和大气降水的混合。金属硫化物的δ34 S值变化范围较小,在-3.0‰~+5.9‰之间,按照同位素平衡系数外推法获得总硫同位素组成δ34SΣ为+9.80‰和+13.13‰,表明硫主要来源于岩浆岩,并反映成矿岩浆演化过程中可能经历了H2S去气作用。方铅矿的206 Pb/204 Pb=18.627~18.758、207 Pb/204Pb=15.598~15.682和208 Pb/204 Pb=38.637~39.298,黄铁矿的206 Pb/204 Pb=18.639~18.678、207 Pb/204 Pb=15.587~15.691和208Pb/204Pb=38.649~38.703,显示部分矿石铅富集放射性成因铅,反映铅的多来源性,即来源于上地幔铅与上地壳铅的混合。反映与夏垅铅锌银矿床成矿相关的岩浆来自于下地壳的部分熔融,并有地幔物质的补给,在岩浆上侵就位过程中又与上地壳中的岩浆房发生了岩浆混合。这也表明该地区可能存在有古老地壳,显示了区域上的独特性,为南拉萨地体区域找矿提供特有的指示意义。     

内蒙古鸡冠山斑岩型钼矿床S、Pb同位素组成:对成矿物质来源的指示

内蒙古鸡冠山钼矿床位于中亚-蒙古巨型造山带东段,是西拉沐沦钼金属成矿带中典型的大型斑岩型钼矿床。矿床产于燕山晚期火山侵入杂岩中,矿体与岩体关系密切,矿化类型以细脉浸染状斑岩型矿化为主。在野外地质观察的基础上,本文对矿石矿物黄铁矿、辉钼矿进行了S同位素组成分析,对矿床围岩全岩及黄铁矿单矿物进行了Pb同位素组成分析。结果表明,钼矿石δ~(34)S变化范围为4. 617‰～7. 072‰,平均值为5. 653‰,离散度小,硫化物δ~(34)S值全为正值,表明矿石中S源是均一的。辉钼矿δ~(34)S变化范围为4. 617‰～5. 351‰,平均值为4. 875‰。硫同位素比值5. 653‰具花岗质岩浆硫特征,推测其硫可能主要来源于下地壳岩浆源,并有一定量的地幔物质混入。全岩的~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb、~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb和~(208)Pb/~(204)Pb分别为17. 876～19. 618、15. 519～15. 609和38. 111～40. 408,表明鸡冠山钼矿床围岩的全岩铅同位素组成均变化较大。矿石矿物黄铁矿的~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb、~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb和~(208)Pb/~(20 4)Pb分别为17. 781～17. 830、15. 523～15. 526和38. 084～38. 102,表明矿石矿物铅同位素组成变化较小。围岩全岩和矿石硫化物的铅同位素投影点均落在造山带演化线的下方,表明铅很可能源于地幔或者下地壳。     

新疆东准噶尔绿源金矿床地质特征与金成矿物质来源分析

绿源浅成低温热液型金矿床位于野马泉-琼河坝古生代岛弧带东段的琼河坝矿集区。赋矿地层为一套中酸性火山熔岩夹火山碎屑岩建造。矿体呈似层状、条带状、透镜状,多受断裂构造控制。其热液成矿作用可分为4个阶段:石英-黄铁矿阶段(S1)、石英(玉髓)-金-黄铁矿阶段(S2)、石英-金-多金属硫化物阶段(S3)、石英-碳酸盐阶段(S4)。金主要赋存于S2和S3阶段。本文对该矿床开展S、Pb同位素及硫化物稀土元素研究,拟揭示其成矿物质来源。结果表明,绿源金矿床金属硫化物的硫同位素组成比较稳定,δ34S集中于+0.2‰~+2.8‰,均值为+1.35‰,显示出岩浆硫的组成特征。矿石与围岩中硫化物的硫同位素δ34S值一致,表明硫可能来源于矿区巴塔玛依内山组火山岩地层。S2和S3阶段硫化物的铅同位素~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb=16.457~18.084、~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb=15.267~15.635、208Pb/~(204)Pb=36.472~38.379,另一件长石的Pb铅同位素~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb=18.546、~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb=15.509、208Pb/~(204)Pb=38.183,μ值介于9.11~9.58之间,ω值介于33.97~38.61之间。上述各铅同位素比值变化范围较大,远远大于正常铅同位素组成的变化范围。结合同位素组成特征及特征参数法认为绿源金矿床矿石Pb为异常Pb,铅源为混合来源,一部分来源于上地壳物质,一部分来源于地幔物质。硫化物稀土元素特征与火山岩类似,暗示成矿物质可能来源于火山岩地层。H、O同位素特征显示,绿源金矿成矿流体以大气降水为主,有少量岩浆水的加入。综合S、Pb同位素、稀土元素等分析,本文认为绿源矿区岩浆活动和成矿作用具有壳幔混合源特征,成矿物质具深源特征,主要直接来自赋矿火山岩。     

赣南西华山钨矿床硫、铅同位素组成对成矿物质来源的示踪

为明确西华山钨矿床成矿物质的来源,本文以矿床中的硫化物和钾长石为研究对象,通过硫化物中硫、铅同位素的研究,对矿床成矿物质来源进行探讨。结果表明,矿石中黄铁矿δ34S值为-2.1‰~0.4‰,辉钼矿δ34S值为4‰~7.9‰,硫主要来源于岩浆。辉钼矿、黄铁矿、钾长石的206 Pb/204 Pb值分别为18.718~18.849、18.640~18.745、18.698~18.792;207Pb/204Pb值分别为15.762~15.770、15.704~15.747、15.697~15.724;208 Pb/204 Pb值分别为39.094~39.134、38.902~39.056、38.904~39.012。由此判断矿床中矿石铅与岩石铅同位素组成具有同源关系,矿石铅主要来自与岩浆作用有关的上地壳;成矿物质来源于上地壳重熔形成的花岗岩浆,即上地壳岩浆侵位,为成矿作用提供部分成矿物质,同时也暗示成矿物质是由体现壳源特征的西华山复式岩体提供。     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Pebbles,Shapes, and Equilibria

The shape of sedimentary particles may carry important information on their history. Current approaches to shape classification (e.g. the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system) rely on shape indices derived from the measurement of the three principal axes of the approximating tri-axial ellipsoid. While these systems have undoubtedly proved to be useful tools, their application inevitably requires tedious and ambiguous measurements, also classification involves the introduction of arbitrarily chosen constants. Here we propose an alternative classification system based on the (integer) number of static equilibria. The latter are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. As opposed to the Zingg system, our method relies on counting rather than measuring. We show that equilibria typically exist on two well-separated (micro and macro) scales. Equilibria can be readily counted by simple hand experiments, i.e. the new classification scheme is practically applicable. Based on statistical results from two different locations we demonstrate that pebbles are well mixed with respect to the new classes, i.e. the new classification is reliable and stable in that sense. We also show that the Zingg statistics can be extracted from the new statistics; however, substantial additional information is also available. From the practical point of view, E-classification is substantially faster than the Zingg method.