Trace elements in the atmospheric aerosols at Delhi,North India

The total suspended particulate (TSP) levels at Delhi (north India) were measured on 116 days between February and October 1980. The observations were stratified according to season and the values of cross-correlation of the TSP and its components were evaluated. High TSP (209 g m^-3) levels were found during the summer period associated with hot and dry weather in the region and low TSP (109 g m^-3) were found during the monsoon period. Most of the TSP mass was associated with natural soil elements, such as Fe, Al, Mn, Ca, and K. Only a fraction of the mass of the TSP was comprised of elements from anthropogenic sources, e.g., Pb, Ni, Cd, Sb, Cu, and Zn. The aerosols at Delhi were potentially basic in nature, unlike those in European countries which are acidic in nature and cause acid rainfall.     

Size distributions and dry deposition fluxes of water-soluble inorganic nitrogen in atmospheric aerosols in Xiamen Bay,China

Size-segregated aerosol particles were collected using a high volume MOUDI sampler at a coastal urban site in Xiamen Bay, China, from March 2018 to June 2020 to examine the seasonal characteristics of aerosol and water-soluble inorganic ions (WSIIs) and the dry deposition of nitrogen species. During the study period, the annual average concentrations of PM₁, PM_2.5, PM₁₀, and TSP were 14.8?±?5.6, 21.1?±?9.0, 35.4?±?14.2 μg m^?3, and 45.2?±?21.3 μg m^?3, respectively. The seasonal variations of aerosol concentrations were impacted by the monsoon with the lowest value in summer and the higher values in other seasons. For WSIIs, the annual average concentrations were 6.3?±?3.3, 2.1?±?1.2, 3.3?±?1.5, and 1.6?±?0.8 μg m^?3 in PM₁, PM_1-2.5, PM_2.5–10, and PM_>10, respectively. In addition, pronounced seasonal variations of WSIIs in PM₁ and PM_1-2.5 were observed, with the highest concentration in spring-winter and the lowest in summer. The size distribution showed that SO₄^2?, NH₄⁺ and K⁺ were consistently present in the submicron particles while Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺ and Cl^? mainly accumulated in the size range of 2.5–10 μm, reflecting their different dominant sources. In spring, fall and winter, a bimodal distribution of NO₃^? was observed with one peak at 2.5–10 μm and another peak at 0.44–1 μm. In summer, however, the fine mode peak disappeared, likely due to the unfavorable conditions for the formation of NH₄NO₃. For NH₄⁺ and SO₄^2?, their dominant peak at 0.25–0.44 μm in summer and fall shifted to 0.44–1 μm in spring and winter. Although the concentration of NO₃–N was lower than NH₄–N, the dry deposition flux of NO₃–N (35.77?±?24.49 μmol N m^?2 d^?1) was much higher than that of NH₄–N (10.95?±?11.89 μmol N m^?2 d^?1), mainly due to the larger deposition velocities of NO₃–N. The contribution of sea-salt particles to the total particulate inorganic N deposition was estimated to be 23.9—52.8%. Dry deposition of particulate inorganic N accounted for 0.95% of other terrestrial N influxes. The annual total N deposition can create a new productivity of 3.55 mgC m^?2 d^?1, accounting for 1.3–4.7% of the primary productivity in Xiamen Bay. In light of these results, atmospheric N deposition could have a significant influence on biogeochemistry cycle of nutrients with respect to projected increase of anthropogenic emissions from mobile sources in coastal region.

     

Concentrations of metallic elements in long-range-transported aerosols measured simultaneously at three coastal sites in China and Japan

To determine the effects of long-range transport of aerosols from an upwind area in East Asia to a downwind area in Japan, we chemically analyzed aerosols collected simultaneously on Tuoji Island (Shandong Province, China), Fukue Island (Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan), and Cape Hedo (Okinawa Prefecture, Japan). We focused on changes in the metallic composition of PM_2.5 aerosols during long-range transport. The average mass concentrations of PM_2.5 at the three sites decreased in the order Tuoji Island > Fukue Island ≈ Cape Hedo (48.3 ± 4.5, 13.9 ± 1.5, and 13.2 ± 0.9 μg/m³, respectively). The fraction of coarse particles in total suspended particles estimated by (1–PM_2.5/TSP) was highest on Cape Hedo, indicating that the contribution of sea salts was increased by long-range transport of the aerosols over the ocean. Enrichment factor analysis revealed that at all three sites, Al, K, Ca, Mn, Fe, Co, Sr, and Ba originated from soil; whereas Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Mo, Ag, Cd, Sn, Sb, Tl, and P appeared to be of anthropogenic origin. Na was the most abundant element on Cape Hedo, indicating the addition of sea salts during aerosol transport. The V concentration was highest at Fukue Island, which was ascribed to V emission from ships. Sixty-one percent of the V on Fukue Island and 62% of the V on Cape Hedo were determined to have originated from ships, implicating of data obtained on dates during which backward trajectory analysis indicated that the same air mass passed over Tuoji Island, Fukue Island, and Cape Hedo in that order.     

典型站点气溶胶对云特性的影响

结合Cloud Sat对云的主动观测和MODIS(MODerate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer)对气溶胶的被动反演,研究了典型站点气溶胶对云的宏观、微观和辐射特性的影响。结果表明,气溶胶对大陆性和海洋性站点的云均有显著影响。1)随气溶胶光学厚度(Aerosol Optical Depth,AOD)增加,水汽含量较弱站点的低层(高层)云量呈减小(增加)趋势,而水汽条件较强站点的各层云量均增大,且具有较高(较低)云顶的云层发生概率在各个站点都呈增加(减小)趋势。2)AOD的增大导致各站点云滴和冰晶粒子的有效半径均减小、大气层顶的短波和长波云辐射强迫均增强、短波云辐射强迫绝对值的加强更显著、长波云辐射强迫增加的幅度相对更大。3)气象要素在AOD大(小)值情况下的变化表明,大尺度动力条件并不能解释云的上述特性随AOD的显著改变。     

Comparison of atmospheric turbulence characteristics and turbulent fluxes from two urban sites in Essen, Germany

From September 2006 to September 2007, the intersite variability of turbulence characteristics and turbulent heat fluxes was analysed at two urban stations in Essen, Germany. One site was situated within an urban residential setting while the other was located at the border of an urban park and suburban/urban residential housing. Therefore, the surroundings at both sites contributing to surface–atmosphere exchange differed in terms of surface cover and surface morphology. During the 1-year measurement period, 19% of data were characterised by stable atmospheric stratification. Since observations of urban turbulence characteristics under stable stratification are scarce, so far, this work adds additional input to this discussion. Turbulence characteristics, i.e. normalised standard deviations of wind components, were in agreement to empirical fits from other urban observations under both instable and stable atmospheric stratification. However, differences in magnitude of turbulence characteristics between sites were observable. Comparison of turbulent heat fluxes indicated typical urban features in the site located in the urban setting with increased surface heating and higher surface heat fluxes by about 30%. Also the temporal evolution of heat fluxes on the diurnal course was affected. Differences in momentum flux were of minor magnitude with about 6% variation on average between sites. Findings indicate that multiple urban flux measurements within one city may be characterised by general similarities in terms of turbulent characteristics but are still significantly influenced by differences in the surface cover of the flux footprint.     

Elemental and organic carbon in atmospheric aerosols at downtown and suburban sites in Prague

Organic and elemental carbon (OC and EC) content in PM₁₀ was studied at two sites in Prague, which were located in a suburb and in the downtown. Similar overall average levels were found for both species and also for the PM₁₀ mass at the two sites (i.e., 5.5 and 4.8 μg/m³ for OC, 0.74 and 0.80 μg/m³ for EC, and 33 μg/m³ and 37 μg/m³ for the PM₁₀ mass at the suburb and downtown site, respectively), but substantial differences were observed between the two sites in some seasons and/or meteorological situations. Approximately three times higher values were found for OC in winter compared to summer, with a higher winter/summer ratio for the suburban site. The differences for EC were smaller, but still, compared to summer, more than two times higher EC levels were observed during autumn at the suburban site and 1.5 higher EC levels in winter and autumn at the downtown site. The lowest OC to EC ratios at the suburban site were 3.4, while they were around 1.3 for the downtown site. It was found that the origin of the air masses had a major impact on the observed PM₁₀ mass and OC levels, with largest concentrations noted for air masses recirculating over central Europe and arriving from southeastern Europe in winter. Trajectories coming from the west and northwest originating above the Atlantic Ocean and the Artic brought the cleanest air masses to the sites. For EC the largest difference between the two sites was observed for northwesterly winds during the non-heating season when the suburban site was upwind of Prague.     

Elemental and organic carbon in atmospheric aerosols at downtown and suburban sites in Prague

Organic and elemental carbon (OC and EC) content in PM₁₀ was studied at two sites in Prague, which were located in a suburb and in the downtown. Similar overall average levels were found for both species and also for the PM₁₀ mass at the two sites (i.e., 5.5 and 4.8 μg/m³ for OC, 0.74 and 0.80 μg/m³ for EC, and 33 μg/m³ and 37 μg/m³ for the PM₁₀ mass at the suburb and downtown site, respectively), but substantial differences were observed between the two sites in some seasons and/or meteorological situations. Approximately three times higher values were found for OC in winter compared to summer, with a higher winter/summer ratio for the suburban site. The differences for EC were smaller, but still, compared to summer, more than two times higher EC levels were observed during autumn at the suburban site and 1.5 higher EC levels in winter and autumn at the downtown site. The lowest OC to EC ratios at the suburban site were 3.4, while they were around 1.3 for the downtown site. It was found that the origin of the air masses had a major impact on the observed PM₁₀ mass and OC levels, with largest concentrations noted for air masses recirculating over central Europe and arriving from southeastern Europe in winter. Trajectories coming from the west and northwest originating above the Atlantic Ocean and the Artic brought the cleanest air masses to the sites. For EC the largest difference between the two sites was observed for northwesterly winds during the non-heating season when the suburban site was upwind of Prague.     

Study of seasonal variation of PM2.5 concentration associated with meteorological parameters at residential sites in Delhi,India

The seasonal variation of particulate matter and its relationship with meteorological parameters were measured at five different residential sites in Delhi. Sampling was carried out for one year including all three seasons (summer, monsoon, and winter). The yearly average concentration of particulate matter (PM_2.5) was 135.16 ± 41.34 µg/m³. The highest average values were observed in winter (208.44 ± 43.67 µg/m³) and the lowest during monsoon season (80.29 ± 39.47 µg/m³). The annual average concentration of PM_2.5 was found to be the highest at the Mukherjee Nagar site (242.16 µg/m³ ) during the winter and lowest at (Jawaharlal Nehru University) JNU (35.65 µg/m³) during the monsoon season. The strongest correlation between PM mass and a meteorological parameter was a strong negative correlation with temperature (R2=0.55). All other parameters were weakly correlated (R2<0.2) with PM mass.

     

Ozone in ambient air at a tropical megacity, Delhi: characteristics, trends and cumulative ozone exposure indices

Seven year data of hourly surface ozone concentration is analyzed to study diurnal cycle, trends, excess of ozone levels above threshold value and cumulative ozone exposure indices at a tropical megacity, Delhi. The ozone levels clearly exhibit a diurnal cycle, similar to what has been found in other urban places. A sharp increase in the ozone levels during forenoon and a sharp decrease in the early afternoon can be observed. The average rate of increase in ozone concentration between 09 and 12 h has been observed to be 7.1 ppb h⁻¹. We find that the daily maximum and daytime 8-h (10–17 h) ozone levels are increasing at a rate of about 1.7 (± 0.7) and 1.3 (± 0.56) ppb y⁻¹, respectively. The directives on ozone pollution in ambient air provided by United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and World Health Organization for vegetation (AOT40) and human health protection were used to assess the air quality. The present surface ozone levels in the city are high enough to exceed “Critical Levels” which are considered to be safe for human health, vegetation and forest. The human health threshold was exceeded for up to ~45 days per year. The AOT40 (Accumulated exposure Over a Threshold of 40 ppb) threshold was exceeded significantly during winter (D-J-F) and pre-monsoon (M-A-M) (Rabi crop growing season) season in India. Translating AOT40 exceedances during pre-monsoon into relative yield loss we estimate yield loss of 22.7%, 22.5%, 16.3% and 5.5% for wheat, cotton, soybean and rice, respectively.     

Meteorological and chemical controls on the vertical distribution of Beijing summer coarse and fine aerosols

Vertical profiles of fine and coarse aerosol particles were determined by cascade impactors at the me-teorological tower in Beijing for three days and one night, July 18-23, 1980. Coarse mode aerosols showed a maximum concentration at 47 m when there was an inversion at about 140 m height, and a rather uniform distribution when there was no inversion. This may indicate a two-component origin of coarse particles at the tower site, one being surface dust and the other being tall stack emissions. Fine mode aerosols showed more complex vertical profiles. Median particle size distributions of most metals were bimodal, indicating distinct coarse particle dispersion and fine accumulation mode processes. A chemical thermodynamic cal-culation indicates that fine mode Si can result from the reduction of silica to volatile SiO during coal combustion with limited air supply, a process which should release substantial amounts of carbon monoxide to the atmosphere.     

Importance of sulfate emission to sulfur deposition at urban and rural sites in China

Throughfall (TF) and wet only (WO) deposition along with SO₂ and sulfate (SO₄²⁻) concentration in air at 4 urban and rural sites in southwestern China were monitored in order to understand the role of different forms of sulfur (S) emission to the S deposition and its effect in China. The sites were located in Chongqing, Hunan, and Guizhou provinces. S deposition at the most polluted site reached 15 g S m^− 2 yr^− 1. At three of the sites, located in the vicinity of several emission sources, dry S deposition is 2.1–4.2 times that of wet deposition, which is significantly higher than what is found in most other parts of the world.Main components in airborne particles (PM₁₀) are (NH₄)₂SO₄ and CaSO₄ at the highly polluted Tie Shan Ping (TSP) site. Dust particles of gypsum (CaSO₄) in the air are partly due to direct emission and partly from the reaction of calcium oxides and carbonates with sulfuric acid in the air. To illustrate the importance of sulfate emission to total S deposition we analyzed the source of S deposition based on both measurements and models. Results indicated that direct emission of SO₄²⁻ particles could account for high proportion in total S deposition at the three most polluted sites.     

Increases of wet deposition at remote sites in Japan from 1991 to 2009

Temporal trends in wet deposition of major ions were explored at nationwide remote sites in Japan from April 1991 to March 2009 by using the seasonal Kendall slope estimator and the nonparametric seasonal Kendall test. For the trend analysis, datasets from eight remote sites (Rishiri, Echizenmisaki, Oki, Ogasawara, Shionomisaki, Goto, Yakushima, and Amami) were selected from the Japanese Acid Deposition Survey (JADS) conducted by the Ministry of the Environment. Deposition of H⁺ has been increasing at remote sites in Japan on a national scale. Significant (p????0.05) increases in H⁺ deposition were detected with changes of +3?C+9?%?year^?1 at seven sites, while insignificant increases were observed at one site. Depositions of non-sea salt (nss)-SO ₄ ^2? and NO ₃ ^? significantly increased at four and six sites, respectively, with changes of +1?C+3?%?year^?1. Significant increases in precipitation at four sites would have contributed to the increase in depositions of H⁺, nss-SO ₄ ^2? , and NO ₃ ^? . The emission trends of SO₂ and NO_x did not corresponded to the deposition trends of nss-SO ₄ ^2? and NO ₃ ^? . The different trends indicated that temporal variation of precipitation amount trend dominated the deposition trends.     

Using measured variances to compute surface fluxes and dry deposition velocities: A comparison with measurements from three surface types

Abstract

Fluxes of temperature, water vapour, O₃, SO₂ and CO₂ were estimated from the measurement of their variances, taken over a wetland region in northern Ontario (Canada) during the summer of 1990 and over a deciduous forest when it was fully leafed during the summer of 1988 and when it was leafless during the winter of 1990. A set of flux‐variance relations was employed, including empirical forms of universal functions that could be adjusted with some constants. Results from the present study show that these constants needed to be adjusted with site‐specific data in order to achieve a closer agreement between estimated and observed fluxes. Best estimates were obtained for the fluxes of temperature and water vapour and it was found that the flux estimates of O₃, SO₂ and CO₂ correlated better with water vapour than with temperature. For these trace gases the flux‐variance method yielded estimates of dry deposition velocities that were either comparable with or larger than those obtained from a resistance analogue model. Both methods yielded values that overestimated the observed dry deposition velocities. The employment of the flux‐variance method in an operational network would require the use of fast‐response sensors and a practical method for reducing the noise level of the measured variances.     

Nonstationarity of turbulent heat fluxes at Summit,Greenland

Turbulence data collected over a total of 25 days during two summers are used to describe processes responsible for the nonstationarity of turbulent sensible heat fluxes at Summit, Greenland. A stationarity test shows that about 40% of the data are classified as nonstationary. Three main factors are explored to account for the large fraction of nonstationary runs: (1) intermittency of turbulence in stable conditions, (2) changes in net all-wave radiation in response to cloud forcing, and (3) diurnal trends in stability. A classification procedure that accounts for the intermittent nature of turbulence shows that during stable, nonstationary conditions 50% of the total sensible heat flux is realized in 22% of the sampling time. Intermittency often occurs at Summit during periods characterized by weak and irregular horizontal winds in combination with strong stability. Rapid changes in net all-wave radiation in response to cloud forcing results in nonstationarity during unstable conditions. Between 0930–1130 and 1900–1930 UTC turbulent heat fluxes are not only small in magnitude but also typically change sign, with nonstationarity during these periods often as high as 65%. These results should help resolve some of the present uncertainties in obtaining reliable fluxes at this site, in particular under stable atmospheric conditions.     

山东惠民黑碳气溶胶变化特征及来源分析

利用山东惠民国家基准气候站2018年12月—2019年11月的黑碳质量浓度、常规气象观测资料以及 GDAS 数据,研究了该地区黑碳气溶胶的变化特征,并基于后向轨迹模型对其潜在源区进行了分析。研究结果表明: 1）观测期间,黑碳质量浓度平均值为 3.22 µg ? m-3,季节变化呈冬、春季高,夏、秋季低的特点;春、夏、秋季黑碳质量浓度的高频值在 2 µg ? m-3 以内,冬季的高频值在 6 µg ? m-3 以上。2）黑碳质量浓度日变化呈双峰结构,峰值分别出现在 06:00—08:00 和 19:00—21:00,谷值出现于 13:00—15:00。3）降雨和风对黑碳质量浓度有明显影响。非降雨期黑碳质量浓度是降雨期的 2.8 倍;当风速小于 3 m ? s-1 时,黑碳质量浓度随风速增大而减小;冬季在西南西方向、春季在正南方向过来的气团易造成黑碳质量浓度高污染。4）惠民气流输送的季节变化特征明显。春、秋、冬季来自鲁中、河北和苏北等周边地区的气流所占比例较高,对应黑碳质量浓度高值;夏季来自海洋方向的气流占比较高,对应的黑碳质量浓度较低。     

一个动态植被模型在欧洲森林碳水循环模拟中的适应性评估研究

对动态全球植被模型M-SDGVM (Modified Sheffield Dynamic Global Vegetation Model), 在1996～1998年15个欧洲森林通量站碳通量和水汽通量的季节和年际变化进行模拟和评估研究, 总的来说, 模型能够合理再现各个站点春、 夏季节碳的吸收, 秋、 冬季节碳的释放, 以及水汽释放的季节变化趋势, 其中, 对水汽通量的模拟更为理想。对模型的上述适应性评估研究表明, 改进后的M-SDGVM有能力研究不同气候条件下欧洲森林生态系统碳、 水循环过程及其响应机制, 但是, 模型对部分站点的模拟仍存在不确定性, 通过对这些偏差及其可能的产生机理进行分析, 有助于模型的进一步发展和应用研究。     

Parametric representation of heat and moisture fluxes in cloud-topped mixed layers

Aircraft measurements were made from the NCAR Electra in stratus and stratocumulus clouds off the coast of California in June 1976. Several types of cloud conditions were observed, including (1) a broken layer less than 100 m thick, capped by an inversion at ~1000 m, (2) a broken stratocumulus layer ~300 m thick with an inversion at ~500 m, and (3) a solid stratocumulus layer ~250 m thick with an inversion at ~500 m. Although these observations indicate that a variety of cloud conditions may exist in mixed layers, simple one-dimensional mixed-layer models implicitly assume a solid cloud layer with no unsaturated region within the cloud. In order to generalize these simple models, a parametric representation of the heat and moisture fluxes is considered. In this scheme, the fluxes are parameterized in terms of the product of a cloud mass flux and the characteristic difference between the thermodynamic properties of an updraft-downdraft circulation. This representation allows for an explicit representation of the buoyancy flux when the downdraft has no liquid water.Data collected during these flights were used to calculate heat and moisture fluxes and to obtain the mean difference in the thermodynamic properties of the updrafts and downdrafts at a given level. The mass flux was calculated using updraft-downdraft differences and the fluxes. The mass fluxes obtained using various thermodynamic quantities are examined for consistency. The vertical distribution of the mass flux is determined. These results indicate that a mass flux formulation could prove to be useful in modeling applications where cloud conditions may vary between solid and broken.     

Chemical characteristics of wet precipitation at an urban site of Guangzhou, South China

The pH variation and chemical characteristics of rainwater were investigated from January 2006 to December 2006 at an urban site of Guangzhou, South China. The rainwater was typically acidic with a volume-weighted mean pH value of 4.49, which ranged from 3.52 to 6.28. The volume-weighted mean equivalent concentration of components followed the order: SO₄²⁻ > Ca²⁺ > Cl⁻ > NH₄⁺ > Na⁺ > NO₃⁻ > K⁺ > Mg²⁺ > F⁻, indicating that SO₄²⁻, Cl⁻ and NO₃⁻ were the main anions, while Ca²⁺ and NH₄⁺, were the main cations. Ca²⁺ and NH₄⁺ were major neutralization constituents of the precipitation. Furthermore, correlation analysis and principal component analysis method were performed to identify possible common sources of major ions. Sources of the major ions were assessed based on enrichment factor method.