南加州地壳的伴随层析成像

使用基于伴随方法的反演策略,研制出了南加州地壳的三维地震模型。该模型涉及到16次层析成像迭代,需要6800次波场模拟和总计80万个中心处理单位小时。与南加州地震中心给出的最初三维模型比较,该新的地壳模型揭示了更强的非均匀性,包括±30%的局部变化。模型说明了诸如沉积盆地和横跨断层的构造反差的浅部特征。也揭示了深部的地壳特征,从而帮助重建诸如俯冲捕获洋壳碎块的南加州构造。新模型有助于对地震危险性做出更实际而准确的评估。     

The sediment composition and predictive mapping of facies on the Propeller Mound—A cold-water coral mound (Porcupine Seabight,NE Atlantic)

Here we provide a detailed qualitative and quantitative insight on recent sediment composition and facies distribution of a cold-water coral (CWC) mound using the example of the Propeller Mound on the Irish continental margin (Hovland Mound Province, Porcupine Seabight). Five facies types on Propeller Mound are defined: (1) living coral framework, (2) coral rubble, (3) dropstone, (4) hardground, representing the on-mound facies, and (5) hemipelagic sediment facies, which describes the off-mound area. This facies definition is based on already published video-data recorded by Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV), photo-data of gravity cores, box cores, and dredges from sediment surfaces as well as on the composition of the sediment fraction coarser than 125 μm, which has been analyzed on five selected box cores. Sediment compositions of the living coral framework and coral rubble facies are rather similar. Both sediment types are mainly produced by corals (34 and 35 wt%, respectively), planktonic foraminifers (22 and 29 wt%, respectively), benthic foraminifers (both 7 wt%), and molluscs (21 and 10 wt%, respectively), whereas the living coral framework characteristically features additional brachiopods (6 wt%). Hardgrounds are well-lithified coral rudstones rich in coral fragments (>30 surf%), foraminifers, echinoderms, and bivalves. The dropstone facies and the hemipelagic sediment typically carry high amounts of lithoclasts (36 and 53 wt%, respectively) and planktonic foraminifers (35 and 32 wt%, respectively); however, their faunal diversity is low compared with the coral-dominated facies (12 and <2 wt% coral fragments, 7 and 6 wt% benthic foraminifers, and 4 and 0 wt% balanids). Using the maximum likelihood algorithm within ArcGIS 9.2, spatial prediction maps of the previously described mound facies are calculated over Propeller Mound and are based on mound morphology parameters, ground-truthed with the sedimentary and faunal information from box cores, photographs, and video-data. This method is tested for the first time for CWC ecosystems and provides areal estimates of the predicted facies, as well as suggests further occurrences of living coral frameworks, coral rubble, and dropstones, which are not discovered in the area yet. Thus, sediment composition analysis combined with facies prediction mapping might provide a potential new tool to estimate living CWC occurrences and sediment/facies distributions on CWC mounds, which is an important prerequisite for budget calculations and definition of marine protected areas, and which will improve our understanding of CWC mound formation.     

Evolution of continental crust in southern Africa

Nd isotopic data from the Zimbabwe and Kaapvaal cratons and the Limpopo, Kalahari, Namaqualand and Damara mobile belts imply that over 50% of present-day continental crust in this region had separated from the mantle by the end of the Archaean and that< 10% of continental crust of southern Africa has formed in the last 1.0 Ga. Such a growth rate implies that average erosion rates through geological time were high and that evolution of continental crust has been dominated by crustal growth prior to 1.4 Ga, and crustal reworking since that time. The evolution of average crust is not represented directly by clastic sediment samples but may be determined from sediment analyses if both the time of orogeneses and the average erosion rate are known. Both trace element data from southern Africa granitoids and the high erosion rates implied by the isotopic study suggest that growth of continental crust in the Archaean was by underplating rather than lateral accretion, but arc accretion was the dominant mechanism after 2.0 Ga.     

川西龙门山及邻区地壳上地幔远震P波层析成像

本文利用川西地震台阵记录到的远震P波走时数据和非线性层析成像算法,获得龙门山地区400 km深度范围内的三维P波速度结构.为了适应川西地区复杂的地质结构,本文的层析成像方法采用了快速行进三维走时计算算法和Tarantola非线性反演算法.我们的结果揭示了川滇地块、松潘—甘孜地块和四川盆地三个不同地块构造差异及该区深部动力学特征.本文的研究表明：1）研究区地壳上地幔P波速度结构具有较为明显的分区特征,松潘—甘孜地块和川滇地块岩石圈速度较低,四川盆地岩石圈速度较高,四川盆地的岩石圈厚度从南250 km向北逐渐减薄至100 km.松潘—甘孜地块上地幔存在地幔上涌的特征.2）川滇地块和四川盆地仅是垂直接触关系,而在龙门山地区四川盆地前缘存在减薄的现象,并伴随松潘—甘孜地块上地幔低速物质有侵入四川盆地岩石圈下方的特征,这显示了四川盆地与松潘—甘孜地块和川滇地块的动力学关系的差异.3）以映秀为界,龙门山断裂带被从松潘—甘孜侵入的低速异常分为南北两段：龙门山南段和龙门山北段,汶川大地震及其余震序列均分布在龙门山断裂带的北段.在青藏高原向东挤压和地幔上涌的双重作用下造成松潘—甘孜地块隆升,由于汶川处于龙门山北段的最南端,应力容易在此集中.这些因素可能是汶川MS8.0地震的基本动力学背景.本文的结果不支持四川盆地的俯冲及层间流动的动力学模型.     

藏南宁金抗沙西麓断裂晚第四纪活动特征

宁金抗沙西麓断裂位于亚东-谷露裂谷系南部.本文利用15 m分辨率的ETM 遥感影像和20 m分辨率的数字高程模型,结合野外地质考察,重点研究了该断裂的详细结构和晚第四纪以来的活动习性.依据与热隆盆地的关系,该断裂主要分为三段,热隆盆地以北为北段,热隆盆地边界断裂为中段,热隆盆地以南为南段.该断裂在强烈正断的同时兼具有左旋走滑运动,自中更新世以来,主要有三期活动,活动开始时间分别为384 ka1、08 ka和34 ka,累积水平活动速率分别为4.8 mm/a5、.5 mm/a和6.4 mm/a.断裂自中更新中期以来的垂直断错速率为1 mm/a.     

The structure of the oceanic crust off southern Peru determined from an ocean bottom seismometer

An oceanic crustal model has been produced for the Nazca plate south of the Nazca Ridge prior to subduction into the Peru-Chile Trench at 18°S latitude. Consistent delays of theP_n arrivals and a discontinuity in the tau-p curve indicate a low-velocity zone at the base of the crust. Observed upper mantle velocities are low; however, the mantle velocity increases with depth, at least to 20 km, to a value of 8.5 km/s. A possible petrological cause for the low-velocity zone is partially serpentinized peridotite; however, no clear refracted shear waves were observed to constrain this interpretation.     

Continental crust formation seen through the Sr and Nd isotope systematics of S-type granites in the Hercynian belt of western France

The isotopic compositions of Sr, Nd and Pb in leucogranites which are intercorrelated (Bernard-Griffiths et al., 1985 [1]) may be explained by the mixing of ancient basement (1800 Ma) with juvenile crust (late Precambrian or early Palaeozoic). This hypothesis does not involve the existence of Mid-Proterozoic crust, as apparently indicated by theT_DM model ages of the leucogranites (ranging between 1600 and 1100 Ma). The Nd isotopes reveal the crustal reworking while Sr isotopes mainly record juvenile crust formation. This paradox is explained by the geochemical heterogeneity of the sources involved.     

East Asian monsoon intensification promoted weathering of the magnesium-rich southern China upper crust and its global significance

The Oligocene-Miocene boundary Asian climatic reorganization linked to the northward migration of the East Asian monsoon into subtropical China is a potentially important but poorly constrained atmospheric CO_2 consumption process.Here,we performed a first-order estimate of the CO_2 consumption induced by silicate chemical weathering and organic carbon burial in subtropical China related to this climatic reorganization.Our results show that an increase in long-term CO_2 consumption by silicate weathering varies from 0.06×10~(12)to 0.87×10~(12)mol yr~(-1)depending on erosion flux reconstructions,with an~50%contribution of Mg-silicate weathering since the late Oligocene.The organic carbon burial flux is approximately 25% of the contemporary CO_2 consumption by silicate weathering.The results highlight the significant role of weathering of the Mg-rich upper continental crust in East China,which would contribute to the rapid decline in atmospheric CO_2 during the late Oligocene and the Neogene rise in the seawater Mg content.If this climatic reorganization was mainly induced by the Tibetan Plateau uplift,our study suggests that the growth of the Himalayan-Tibetan Plateau can lead to indirect modification of the global carbon and magnesium cycles by changing the regional hydrological cycle in areas of East Asia that are tectonically less active.     

青藏高原东缘下地壳流动的地震学证据

在2000年完成的穿过川西高原和四川盆地的深地震测深剖面揭示了川西高原的地壳结构具有地壳增厚(主要是下地壳增厚)、地壳平均速度低等特点,显示地壳的缩短与增厚的碰撞变形特征。根据川西高原上设置各爆炸点的记录截面图共同呈现PmP(莫霍界面反射波)弱能量的特点,推断在川西高原的下地壳介质具有强衰减(Qp=100~300)的性质。利用我国西部地区的宽频带地震台站的面波资料反演青藏高原及其邻区的地壳上地幔S波三维速度结构,在周期T=29.2s和T=42.9s的Rayleigh波群速度分布图上,显示了青藏高原东部(包括川西高原)呈现大范围的低速异常。多方面的结果表明,地震学方法为当前流行的下地壳流动模型提供了深部证据。     

Seismicity in the outer rise offshore southern Chile: Indication of fluid effects in crust and mantle

We examine the micro-earthquake seismicity recorded by two temporary arrays of ocean bottom seismometers on the outer rise offshore southern Chile on young oceanic plate of ages 14 Ma and 6 Ma, respectively. The arrays were in operation from December 2004–January 2005 and consisted of 17 instruments and 12 instruments, respectively. Approximately 10 locatable events per day were recorded by each of the arrays. The catalogue, which is complete for magnitudes above 1.2–1.5, is characterized by a high b value, i.e., a high ratio of small to large events, and the data set is remarkable in that a large proportion of the events form clusters whose members show a high degree of waveform similarity. The largest cluster thus identified consisted of 27 similar events (average inter-event correlation coefficient > 0.8 for a 9.5 s window), and waveform similarity persists far into the coda. Inter-event spacing is irregular, but very short waiting times of a few minutes are far more common than expected from a Poisson distribution. Seismicity with these features (high b value, large number of similar events with short waiting times) is typical of swarm activity, which, based on empirical evidence and theoretical considerations, is generally thought to be driven by fluid pressure variations. Because no pronounced outer rise bulge exists on the very young plate in the study region, it is unlikely that melt is accessible from decompression melting or opening of cracks. A fluid source related to processes at the nearby ridge is conceivable for the younger segment but less likely for the older one. We infer that the fluid source could be seawater, which enters through fractures in the crust. Most of the similar-earthquake clusters are within the crust, but some of them locate significantly below the Moho. If our interpretation is correct, this implies that water is present within the mantle. Hydration of the mantle is also indicated by a decrease of P_n velocities below the outer rise seen on a refraction profile through one of the arrays [Contreras-Reyes, E., Grevemeyer, I., Flueh, E.R., Scherwath, M., Heesemann, M., 2007. Alteration of the subducting oceanic lithosphere at the southern central Chile trench-outer rise. Geochem., Geophys. Geosyst. 8, Q07003.]. The deepest events within the array on the 6 Ma old plate occur where the temperature reaches 500–600 °C, consistent with the value observed for large intraplate earthquakes within the mantle (650 °C), suggesting that the maximum temperature at which these fluid-mediated micro-earthquakes can occur is similar or identical to that of large earthquakes.     

用接收函数方法研究青华地震台下方地壳厚度结构

利用小湾电站水库诱发地震台网之青华地震台记录到的93个远震地震事件,挑选其中效果较好的55个远震地震事件进行接收函数的计算,研究同一个台站下方地壳厚度随反方位角的变化情况。结果表明:①在青华地震台下方地壳平均厚度约为40.5 km;②不同方位的远震事件反映出台站下方不同方位的地壳厚度存在差异;③青华地震台下方地壳厚度存在由南向北逐渐增厚的特点,而东西向的横向变化不明显;④青华地震台反方位角在112°附近区域地壳厚度变化异常明显。     

Geochemistry of basalts from the Dumisseau Formation, southern Haiti: implications for the origin of the Caribbean Sea crust

Basalt and diabase from the Cretaceous Dumisseau Formation, southern Haiti have Mg-numbers of 43–63, TiO₂ contents of 1.6–3.9% and La abundances of 3.6–15.3 ppm.La/Ta ratios average 10, and indicate that the basalts are oceanic in character, distinct from the arc associations forming the northern part of Haiti. Oldest lavas have low TiO₂ (1.6%) and are LREE-depleted, similar to N-MORBs, whereas overlying lavas have higher TiO₂ (2–3.9%) and are LREE-enriched, similar to E-MORBs or hotspot basalts.⁸⁷Sr⁸⁶Sr ratios vary from 0.70280 to 0.70316,¹⁴³Nd¹⁴⁴Nd from 0.512929 to 0.513121, and²⁰⁶Pb²⁰⁴Pb from 19.00 to 19.27. LREE-depleted lavas have high¹⁴³Nd¹⁴⁴Nd (0.51309–0.51310) typical of MORBs, whereas¹⁴³Nd¹⁴⁴Nd in the LREE-enriched lavas varies widely (0.512929–0.513121).Chemical features of the Dumisseau basalts are equivalent to those of Caribbean seafloor basalts recovered on DSDP Leg 15, and support the contention that the Dumisseau is an uplifted section of Caribbean Sea crust. Oldest lavas are analogous to MORB-like basalts cored at Leg 15 Sites 146, 150, 152 and 153, and the overlying lavas are analogous to incompatible-element-enriched basalts cored at Site 151 on the Beata Ridge. Isotopic compositions of the Dumisseau basalts overlap with those of the eastern Pacific Galapagos and Easter Island hotspots. However, the presence of N-MORB basalts in the lower part of the Dumisseau and at the majority of Leg 15 Sites indicates that the anomalously thick Caribbean crust probably did not originate as a hotspot-related basaltic plateau, but may have been generated by on-ridge or near-ridge hotspot magmatism.     

利用气枪地震资料对福建及台湾海峡南部地壳三维P波速度结构研究

根据福建及台湾海峡南部海陆联测试验记录到的Pg和Pm震相走时数据,利用速度与界面联合成像方法构建地壳三维P波速度结构,揭示了该区地壳深部构造特征.结果表明：福建和台湾海峡海陆过渡带以及海峡南部地壳速度结构存在明显的不均匀性,滨海断裂两侧速度结构复杂,随深度呈现明显的分段特征,其上地壳海陆过渡带呈高速特性,台湾海峡呈低速特性;下地壳海陆过渡带呈低速特性,台湾海峡呈高速特性;研究区莫霍面的深度约为28~33 km,存在较明显差异,闽粤交接部位存在明显的地壳厚度减薄,莫霍面深度接近28 km,这与正常型华南活动地块与减薄型南海活动地块交汇致使地壳厚度减薄有关,体现了活动块体边界构造特征.历史大震主要发生在高低速异常过渡带且有深大断裂穿过的区域,现今中小震主要分布于闽粤海陆过渡带,这一特征可能与此地广泛发育的断层和华南与南海活动地块相互作用有关.     

A multi-scale 3-D crust velocity model in the Hefei-Chao Lake area around the southern segment of Tanlu Fault Zone

Regional high-precision velocity models of the crust are an important foundation for examining seismic activity, seismogenic environments, and disaster distribution characteristics. The Hefei-Chao Lake area contains the main geological units of Hefei Basin, with thick sediments and the Chao Lake depression. Several major concealed faults of the southern NNE-trending Tanlu Fault Zone cross this area. To further explore the underground distribution characteristics of the faults and their tectonic evolutionary relationship with adjacent tectonic units, this study used ambient noise data recorded by a seismic array deployed in Hefei City and Chao Lake, constructing a 3-D velocity model at the depth of 1–8 km. Then a multi-scale high-resolution 3-D velocity model of this area was constructed by this new upper crustal velocity model with the previous middle and lower crustal model. The new model reveals that a high-velocity belt is highly consistent with the strike of the Tanlu Fault Zone, and a low-velocity sedimentary characteristic is consistent with the Hefei Basin and Chao Lake depression. The distribution morphology of high and low velocity bodies shows that the sedimentary pattern of Hefei-Chao Lake area is closely related to the tectonic evolution of the Tanlu Fault Zone since the Mesozoic. This study also identifies multiple low-velocity anomalies in the southeastern Hefei City. We speculate that strong ground motion during the 2009 Feidong earthquake (magnitude of 3.5) was related to amplification by the thick sediments in the Hefei Basin. We also discuss further applications of multi-scale high-resolution models of the shallow layer to strong ground motion simulations in cities and for earthquake disaster assessments.     

Recycling of the continental crust

In order to understand the evolution of the crust-mantle system, it is important to recognize the role played by the recycling of continental crust. Crustal recycling can be considered as two fundamentally distinct processes: 1) intracrustal recycling and 2) crust-mantle recycling. Intracrustal recycling is the turnover of crustal material by processes taking place wholly within the crust and includes most sedimentary recycling, isotopic resetting (metamorphism), intracrustal melting and assimilation. Crust-mantle recycling is the transfer of crustal material to the mantle with possible subsequent return to the crust. Intracrustal recycling is important in interpreting secular changes in sediment composition through time. It also explains differences found in crustal area-age patterns measured by different isotopic systems and may also play a role in modeling crustal growth curves based on Nd-model ages. Crustal-mantle recycling, for the most part, is a subduction process and may be considered on three levels. The first is recycling with only short periods of time in the mantle (<10 m.y.). This may be important in explaining the origin of island-arc and related igneous rocks; there is growing agreement that 1–3% recycled sediment is involved in their origin. Components of recycled crustal material, with long-term storage (up to 2.5 b.y.) in the mantle as distinct entities, has been suggested for the origin of ocean island and ultrapotassic volcanics but there is considerably less agreement on this interpretation. A third proposal calls for the return of crustal material to the mantle with efficient remixing in order to swamp the geochemical and isotopic signature of the recycled component by the mantle. This type of recycling is required for steady-state models of crustal evolution where the mass of the continents remains constant over geological time. It is unlikely if crust-mantle recycling has exceeded 0.75 km³/yr over the past 1–2 Ga.Good evidence exists that selective recycling is an important process. Sedimentary rocks preserved in different tectonic settings are apparently recycled at different rates, resulting in a bias in the sediment types preserved in the geologic record. Selective recycling has important implications for the interpretation of Nd model ages of old sedimentary rocks and in the analysis of accreted terranes. Although there is evidence that continental crust was formed prior to 3.8 Ga, the oldest preserved rocks do not exceed this age. It is likely that the intense meteorite bombardment, which affected the earth during the period 4.56–3.8 Ga, coupled with rapid mantle convection, which resulted from greater heat production, caused the destruction and probable recycling into the mantle of any early formed crust.Although crust-mantle recycling is seen as a viable process, it is concluded that crustal growth has exceeded crust-mantle recycling since at least 3.8 Ga. Intracrustal recycling has not been given adequate consideration in models of crustal growth based on isotopic data (particularly Nd model ages). It is concluded that crustal growth curves based on Nd model ages, while vastly superior to those based on K/Ar or Rb/Sr, tend to underestimate the volume of old crust, due to crust-mantle and/or intracrustal recycling.     

Volcanic resurfacing and the early terrestrial crust: Zircon U-Pb and REE constraints from the Isua Greenstone Belt, southern West Greenland

The oldest known bona fide succession of clastic metasediments occurs in the Isua Greenstone Belt, SW Greenland and consists of a variety of mica schists and rare metaconglomerates. The metasediments are in direct contact with a felsic metavolcanic lithology that has previously been dated to 3.71 Ga. Based on trace element geochemical data for > 30 metasediments, we selected the six samples with highest Zr concentrations for zircon extraction. These samples all yielded very few or no zircon. Those extracted from mica schists yielded ion probe U/Pb ages between 3.70 and 3.71 Ga. One metaconglomerate sample yielded just a single zircon of 3.74 Ga age.The mica schist hosted zircons have U/Pb ages, Th / U ratios, REE patterns and Eu anomalies indistinguishable from zircon in the adjacent 3.71 Ga felsic metavolcanic unit. Trace element modelling requires the bulk of material in the metasediments to be derived from variably weathered mafic lithologies but some metasediments contain substantial contribution from more evolved source lithologies. The paucity of zircon in the mica schists is thus explained by incorporation of material from largely zircon-free volcanic lithologies. The absence of older zircon in the mica schists and the preponderance of mafic source material imply intense, mainly basaltic resurfacing of the early Earth. The implications of this process are discussed.Thermal considerations suggest that horizontal growth of Hadean crust by addition of mafic-ultramafic lavas must have triggered self-reorganisation of the protocrust by remelting. Reworking of Hadean crust may have been aided by burial of hydrated (weathered) metabasalt due to semi-continuous addition of new voluminous basalt outpourings. This process causes a bias towards eruption of Zr-saturated partial melts at the surface with O-isotope compositions potentially different from the mantle. The oldest zircons hosted in sediments would have been buried to substantial depth or formed in plutons that crystallised at some depth, from which it took hundreds of millions of years for them to be exhumed and incorporated into much younger sediments.     

非洲南部地壳与上地幔地震波速度与径向各向异性特征及其对克拉通岩石圈中部不连续面的启示

克拉通地区发育的岩石圈中部不连续面(Mid-Lithosphere Discontinuity, MLD)对于理解克拉通的形成与演化有着重要的意义.非洲南部的卡普瓦尔克拉通(Kaavpvaal craton)较为稳定, 是研究MLD地震学特征及其成因机制的一个重点区域.本研究基于多个地震台网105个台站记录的700多个地震事件的面波波形, 通过Rayleigh波和Love波成像, 构建了非洲南部地壳与上地幔的三维剪切波速度与径向各向异性模型.研究结果表明, 卡普瓦尔克拉通的地壳与上地幔呈现相对高速异常, 其岩石圈与软流圈界面(LAB)出现在约220 km深.另外, 我们在卡普瓦尔克拉通岩石圈内部约100 km深观测到一个速度突变面, 可解释为MLD, 并在MLD下方观测到低速层.而各向异性在上地幔的垂直方向上并未显示明显的区域性突变, 似乎暗示MLD的地震各向异性特征更为复杂.结合前人的研究成果, 我们推测卡普瓦尔克拉通MLD与上地幔低速层的成因可能与温度密切相关.而镁值成分异常或岩浆侵入则会局部的改变该克拉通(尤其是其北部)上地幔速度.针对MLD与上地幔低速成因的研究还需结合更多的地球物理数据和岩石实验结果.本研究为理解克拉通的演化提供重要的基础.

     

The types of the earth's crust

For the comprehensive mapping of the deep structure of the Earth's crust a determination of the general types of the crust based on its most essential structural parameters is attempted. Three parameters are considered as most informative, and are accepted as basic for this purpose: thickness of the Earth's curst, thickness of the sedimentary layer, and average velocities of compressional waves in the consolidated parts of the crust. Six types of the crust are recognized. A more detailed division of the crust into sub-types has also been worked out.     

Recent movements of the earth's crust

Summary It has been shown that it is necessary to combine several methods to be able to describe and explain recent movements of the Earth's crust.Presented at the XV^th General Assembly of the IUGG, Moscow 1971.     

Experimental study of the electrical conductivity of hydrous minerals in the crust and the mantle under high pressure and high temperature

Hydrous minerals are important water carriers in the crust and the mantle, especially in the subduction zone. With the recent development of the experimental technique, studies of the electrical conductivity of hydrous silicate minerals under controlled temperature, pressure and oxygen fugacity, have helped to constrain the water distribution in the Earth’s interior. This paper introduces high pressure and temperature experimental study of electrical conductivity measurement of hydrous minerals such as serpentine, talc, brucite, phase A, super hydrous phase B and phase D, and assesses the data quality of the above minerals. The dehydration effect and the pressure effect on the bulk conductivity of the hydrous minerals are specifically emphasized. The conduction mechanism of hydrous minerals and the electrical structure of the subduction zone are discussed based on the available conductivity data. Finally, the potential research fields of the electrical conductivity of hydrous minerals is presented.