Mean and Turbulent Flow Statistics in a Trellised Agricultural Canopy

Flow physics is investigated in a two-dimensional trellised agricultural canopy to examine that architecture’s unique signature on turbulent transport. Analysis of meteorological data from an Oregon vineyard demonstrates that the canopy strongly influences the flow by channelling the mean flow into the vine-row direction regardless of the above-canopy wind direction. Additionally, other flow statistics in the canopy sub-layer show a dependance on the difference between the above-canopy wind direction and the vine-row direction. This includes an increase in the canopy displacement height and a decrease in the canopy-top shear length scale as the above-canopy flow rotates from row-parallel towards row-orthogonal. Distinct wind-direction-based variations are also observed in the components of the stress tensor, turbulent kinetic energy budget, and the energy spectra. Although spectral results suggest that sonic anemometry is insufficient for resolving all of the important scales of motion within the canopy, the energy spectra peaks still exhibit dependencies on the canopy and the wind direction. These variations demonstrate that the trellised-canopy’s effect on the flow during periods when the flow is row-aligned is similar to that seen by sparse canopies, and during periods when the flow is row-orthogonal, the effect is similar to that seen by dense canopies.     

植被冠层湍流代数应力模式

从植被冠层湍流时空平均雷诺应力方程出发，根据植被冠层内有关参数化的准则，建立了湍流代数应力模式，并用玉米和小麦两种作物地的实测资料对模式进行了验证。     

The Hurst Phenomenon in Error Estimates Related to Atmospheric Turbulence

The Hurst phenomenon is a well-known feature of long-range persistence first observed in hydrological and geophysical time series by E. Hurst in the 1950s. It has also been found in several cases in turbulence time series measured in the wind tunnel, the atmosphere, and in rivers. Here, we conduct a systematic investigation of the value of the Hurst coefficient H in atmospheric surface-layer data, and its impact on the estimation of random errors. We show that usually \(H > 0.5\), which implies the non-existence (in the statistical sense) of the integral time scale. Since the integral time scale is present in the Lumley–Panofsky equation for the estimation of random errors, this has important practical consequences. We estimated H in two principal ways: (1) with an extension of the recently proposed filtering method to estimate the random error (\(H_p\)), and (2) with the classical rescaled range introduced by Hurst (\(H_R\)). Other estimators were tried but were found less able to capture the statistical behaviour of the large scales of turbulence. Using data from three micrometeorological campaigns we found that both first- and second-order turbulence statistics display the Hurst phenomenon. Usually, \(H_R\) is larger than \(H_p\) for the same dataset, raising the question that one, or even both, of these estimators, may be biased. For the relative error, we found that the errors estimated with the approach adopted by us, that we call the relaxed filtering method, and that takes into account the occurrence of the Hurst phenomenon, are larger than both the filtering method and the classical Lumley–Panofsky estimates. Finally, we found that there is no apparent relationship between H and the Obukhov stability parameter. The relative errors, however, do show stability dependence, particularly in the case of the error of the kinematic momentum flux in unstable conditions, and that of the kinematic sensible heat flux in stable conditions.     

大风条件下城市冠层流场模拟

发展了基于k-ε湍流闭合方法的城市冠层流场模式,建筑群采用多孔介质来表示,对气流的阻力以形式阻力来描述,采用该模式模拟北京市一个小区的流场,并将模拟结果与北京325 m气象塔观测资料进行比较,结果表明:在大风情况下,计算风廓线与观测拟合风廓线比较吻合.该模式可以用于大风条件下城市冠层流场的模拟.     

Comparing Two Implementations of a Micromixing Model. Part II: Canopy Flow

The sequential particle micromixing model (SPMMM) is used to estimate concentration fluctuations in plumes dispersing into a canopy flow. SPMMM uses the familiar single-particle Lagrangian stochastic (LS) trajectory framework to pre-calculate the required conditional mean concentrations, which are then used by an interaction by exchange with the conditional mean (IECM) micromixing model to predict the higher-order fluctuations of the scalar concentration field. The predictions are compared with experimental wind-tunnel dispersion data for a neutrally stratified canopy flow, and with a previously reported implementation using simultaneous particle trajectories. The two implementations of the LS–IECM model are shown to be largely consistent with one another and are able to simulate dispersion in a canopy flow with fair to good accuracy.     

大豆晴天群体光合作用农业气象数值模拟

运用农业气象、气象学等知识建立了一个晴天大豆群体光合农业气象数值模式.模式考虑了大豆叶片空间结构特征及本身生物学特征, 积分达到了瞬时时间尺度, 可以较准确地模拟出群体光合日变化过程, 平均模拟误差在8.7%左右, 并较好地反应了大豆群体光合午休过程.利用该模式进行数值分析, 给出了CO₂、辐射及温度对群体光合午休影响的一些规律, 从而为作物超高产攻关提供了一定的理论指导.     

A Note on Two-Equation Closure Modelling of Canopy Flow

The note presents a rational approach to modelling the source/sink due to vegetation or buoyancy effects that appear in the turbulent kinetic energy, E, equation and a supplementary equation for a length-scale determining variable, φ, when two-equation closure is applied to canopy and atmospheric boundary-layer flows. The approach implements only standard model coefficients C _φ1 and C _φ2 in the production and destruction terms of the φ equation, respectively. Numerical tests illustrate the practical applicability of the method, where, for example, simulations with the E–ω model (where is the specific dissipation and is the dissipation rate of E) properly reproduce both the surface-layer wind profile estimated from the Monin-Obukhov similarity theory and the mixing-height evolution observed above forested terrain in Southern Finland.     

A Framework for Uncertainty Quantification in One-Dimensional Plant Canopy Flow

Boundary-Layer Meteorology - Airborne meteorological in situ measurements as well as stationary measurements at the offshore masts FINO1 and FINO3 in the German Bight are evaluated in order to...     

A Simple Model for Spatially-averaged Wind Profiles Within and Above an Urban Canopy

This paper deals with the modelling of the flow in the urban canopy layer. It critically reviews a well-known formula for the spatially-averaged wind profile, originally proposed by Cionco in 1965, and provides a new interpretation for it. This opens up a number of new applications for modelling mean wind flow over the neighbourhood scale. The model is based on a balance equation between the obstacle drag force and the local shear stress as proposed by Cionco for a vegetative canopy. The buildings within the canopy are represented as a canopy element drag formulated in terms of morphological parameters such as λ _f and λ _p (the ratios of plan area and frontal area of buildings to the lot area). These parameters can be obtained from the analysis of urban digital elevation models. The shear stress is parameterised using a mixing length approach. Spatially-averaged velocity profiles for different values of building packing density corresponding to different flow regimes are obtained and analysed. The computed solutions are compared with published data from wind-tunnel and water-tunnel experiments over arrays of cubes. The model is used to estimate the spatially-averaged velocity profile within and above neighbourhood areas of real cities by using vertical profiles of λ _f .     

一方程模型在植被冠层中的应用

利用建立的一方程模式对植被气象场和湍流场进行了模拟计算。结果表明：在植被叶面积密度最大值处，由植被叶面积产生的阻力使风速急剧减小，而后平缓接近地面风速值。Reynolds应力从植被顶部向下剧烈减小，在Z／Hc值为0．4～0．6之间衰减迅速；冠层下部风速小且切变弱，湍流未能充分发展，因而动量输送甚微。由于在植被内部环境中存在着湍流通量的辐散或辐合的现象，湍流强度从植被底部开始由下至上逐渐增强，在冠层上方则基本保持不变。     

Study on Effects of Building Morphology on Urban Boundary LayerUsing an Urban Canopy Model

An urban canopy model is incorporated into the Nanjing University Regional Boundary Layer Model.Temperature simulated by the urban canopy model is in better agreement with the observation, especially in the night time, than that simulated by the traditional slab model. The coupled model is used to study the effects of building morphology on urban boundary layer and meteorological environment by changing urban area, building height, and building density.It is found that when the urban area is expanded, the urban boundary layer heat flux, thermal turbu-lence, and the turbulent momentum flux and kinetic energy all increase or enhance, causing the surface air temperature to rise up. The stability of urban atmospheric stratiˉcation is a?ected to diffierent extent at diffierent times of the day.When the building height goes up, the aerodynamic roughness height, zero plane displacement heightof urban area, and ratio of building height to street width all increase. Therefore, the increase in building height results in the decrease of the surface heat flux, urban surface temperature, mean wind speed, and turbulent kinetic energy in daytime. While at night, as more heat storage is released by higher buildings,thermal turbulence is more active and surface heat flux increases, leading to a higher urban temperature.As the building density increases, the aerodynamic roughness height of urban area decreases, and theeffect of urban canopy on radiation strengthens. The increase of building density results in the decrease in urban surface heat flux, momentum flux, and air temperature, the increase in mean wind speed, and the weakening of turbulence in the daytime. While at night, the urban temperature increases due to the release of more heat storage.     

SWAN系统QPE产品的误差统计及订正方法研究

利用SWAN系统QPE产品资料和自动站降水量,对甘肃省2010~2012年汛期QPE产品的应用效果进行检验。结果表明：QPE产品在0.1~0.9 mm降水量级上存在较小的高估,而在其它降水量级上均表现为低估,且随着降水量级的增加低估的越为明显;对于5.0 mm以下降水,QPE产品估测误差较小,平均误差〈2.0 mm,但对于〉5.0 mm降水会出现估测误差跃增现象,且随着降水强度的增加误差增大,估测产品的效果明显减弱;降水估测值命中率POD1在降水量〈2.5 mm区间效果较好,但随着降水量的增加其命中率迅速减小,而降水估测绝对误差命中率POD2对于〈10.0 mm降水的响应较好,同样地随着降水量的增加其命中率快速减小;海拔高度、经度和纬度是影响甘肃地区QPE产品误差的主要因子,利用影响降水分布较大的3个因子分别建立一元、多元加权回归方程,在此基础上对QPE产品进行订正,通过2012年的应用检验表明该方法对QPE产品的订正效果明显。     

Large-Eddy Simulation of Coherent Flow Structures within a Cubical Canopy

Instantaneous flow structures “within” a cubical canopy are investigated via large-eddy simulation. The main topics of interest are, (1) large-scale coherent flow structures within a cubical canopy, (2) how the structures are coupled with the turbulent organized structures (TOS) above them, and (3) the classification and quantification of representative instantaneous flow patterns within a street canyon in relation to the coherent structures. We use a large numerical domain (2,560 m × 2,560 m × 1,710 m) with a fine spatial resolution (2.5 m), thereby simulating a complete daytime atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), as well as explicitly resolving a regular array of cubes (40 m in height) at the surface. A typical urban ABL is numerically modelled. In this situation, the constant heat supply from roof and floor surfaces sustains a convective mixed layer as a whole, but strong wind shear near the canopy top maintains the surface layer nearly neutral. The results reveal large coherent structures in both the velocity and temperature fields “within” the canopy layer. These structures are much larger than the cubes, and their shapes and locations are shown to be closely related to the TOS above them. We classify the instantaneous flow patterns in a cavity, specifically focusing on two characteristic flow patterns: flushing and cavity-eddy events. Flushing indicates a strong upward motion, while a cavity eddy is characterized by a dominant vortical motion within a single cavity. Flushing is clearly correlated with the TOS above, occurring frequently beneath low-momentum streaks. The instantaneous momentum and heat transport within and above a cavity due to flushing and cavity-eddy events are also quantified.     

Three-Dimensional Scalar Microfront Systems in a Large-Eddy Simulation of Vegetation Canopy Flow

Large-eddy simulation is used to reproduce neutrallystratified airflow inside and immediately above a vegetation canopy. A passive scalaris released from the canopy and the evolution of scalar concentration above the canopyis studied. The most significant characteristic of the scalar concentration is the repeatedformation and dissipation of scalar microfronts, a phenomenon that has been observedin nature. These scalar microfronts consist of downstream-tilted regions of highscalar concentration gradients. Computer visualization tools and a conditional samplingand compositing technique are utilized to analyze these microfronts. Peaks in positivepressure perturbation exceeding an experimental threshold are found to be effectiveindicators of scalar microfronts. Convergence of the streamwise velocity componentand divergence of the cross-stream velocity component are observed in the immediatevicinity of scalar microfronts, which helps explain their relatively longlifetimes. Many of these three-dimensional features have been observedin previous field studies of canopy flow.     

Study on Effects of Building Morphology on Urban Boundary Layer Using an Urban Canopy Model

An urban canopy model is incorporated into the Nanjing University Regional Boundary Layer Model. Temperature simulated by the urban canopy model is in better agreement with the observation, especially in the night time, than that simulated by the traditional slab model. The coupled model is used to study the effects of building morphology on urban boundary layer and meteorological environment by changing urban area, building height, and building density.It is found that when the urban area is expanded, the urban boundary layer heat flux, thermal turbulence, and the turbulent momentum flux and kinetic energy all increase or enhance, causing the surface air temperature to rise up. The stability of urban atmospheric stratification is affected to different extent at different times of the day.When the building height goes up, the aerodynamic roughness height, zero plane displacement height of urban area, and ratio of building height to street width all increase. Therefore, the increase in building height results in the decrease of the surface heat flux, urban surface temperature, mean wind speed, and turbulent kinetic energy in daytime. While at night, as more heat storage is released by higher buildings, thermal turbulence is more active and surface heat flux increases, leading to a higher urban temperature.As the building density increases, the aerodynamic roughness height of urban area decreases, and the effect of urban canopy on radiation strengthens. The increase of building density results in the decrease in urban surface heat flux, momentum flux, and air temperature, the increase in mean wind speed, and the weakening of turbulence in the daytime. While at night, the urban temperature increases due to the release of more heat storage.     

Thermal Energy Balance Analysis of the Tokyo Metropolitan Area Using a Mesoscale Meteorological Model Incorporating an Urban Canopy Model

The summer climate around the Tokyo metropolitan area has been analysed on an urban scale, and the regional characteristics of the thermal energy balance of a bayside business district in the centre of Tokyo (Otemachi) have been compared with an inland residential district (Nerima), using a mesoscale meteorological model incorporating an urban canopy model. From the results of the analysis, the mechanism of diurnal change in air temperature and absolute humidity in these areas is quantitatively demonstrated, with a focus on the thermal energy balance. Moreover, effective countermeasures against urban heat-islands are considered from the viewpoint of each region’s thermal energy balance characteristics. In addition to thermal energy outflux by turbulent diffusion, advection by sea-breezes from Tokyo Bay discharges sensible heat in Otemachi. This mitigates temperature increases during the day. On the other hand, because all sea-breezes must first cross the centre of Tokyo, it has less of a cooling effect in Nerima. As a result, the air temperature during the day in Nerima is higher than that in Otemachi.     

玉米冠层对降水的截留模型构建

降水资源是农作物的主要水分来源,农作物通过吸收土壤中的水分维持正常的生长发育,但由于未考虑农作物冠层对降水截留作用,在水资源评估和农田水分平衡研究中往往高估降水作用。该文通过2018年玉米生长季在辽宁锦州农业气象试验站开展的降水模拟试验系统分析了玉米冠层对降水的截留效应,结果表明：在降水量一定条件下,玉米冠层截留量与叶面积指数的二次多项式拟合相关最佳;在叶面积指数一定条件下,玉米冠层截留量与降水量的幂函数拟合相关最佳。综合叶面积指数和降水量分析表明：玉米冠层截留量与叶面积指数平方及降水量对数函数拟合呈正相关。根据我国玉米传统种植方式,高产玉米的叶面积指数最大一般为5~6,因此,对一次降水的最大截留量通常约为1.5~2.3 mm,当叶面积指数小于1时,对降水的截留可忽略不计。