Rainfall on the Sea: Surface Renewals and Wave Damping

Rainfall on the sea surface causes a variety of effects on the molecular boundary layers. Two such effects are the reduction of the surface renewal time period and the damping of short gravity waves being responsible for wave breaking at higher wave frequencies. The effects described recently by Schlüssel et al. are revaluated in order to fully include the varying raindrop velocity. New parameterizations are derived, which differ from the previous ones, and a substantially higher kinetic energy flux due to rain is found. The general conclusions about the impact on the thermal molecular boundary do not change, although we point to several minor errors in the calculations of Schlüssel et al. (1997).     

夜间近地面稳定边界层湍流间歇与增温

在夜间晴空条件下，近地面大气湍流表现出很强的间歇性，这种间歇现象导致夜间气温短时的急剧下降，随后大幅度增温。近地面大幅度增温表明此时存在着很大的湍流热通量散度，常通量层的概念这时不存在。从各高度层温度和风速变化的曲线上分析，我们发现湍流大多在距离地面较高一点的高度上发生发展，然后向下层传递，尽管上层的湍流可能是由于下层的某一触发机制向上传递而引起的。湍流偶尔也出现自下向上传递的过程，但这一过程较少发生。湍流的这种上下传递说明稳定边界层大气经常处于非平衡状态，在运用相似理论研究稳定边界层大气结构时要特别注意这一情形。     

Inhomogeneity of the Land Surface and Problems in theParameterization of Surface Fluxes in Natural Conditions

Summary Eddy correlation techniques to determine the turbulent fluxes of heat, moisture and momentum in the near-surface atmospheric layer rely on the Monin-Obukhov similarity theory, which requires stationarity and horizontal homogeneity. Experiments at specially selected sites over land and particularly over sea are used to develop this concept. Recent experiments, deliberately conducted in non-ideal conditions, show an underestimation of turbulent fluxes. Results from the field experiments FIFE, KUREX, TARTEX and SADE, point to a relationship between the underestimation of turbulent fluxes and terrain inhomogeneity. In order to systematically correct for this effect a scheme is suggested which uses fetch lengths of different types of surface in the sites surrounding the environment. In addition, horizontal differences in atmospheric stability above different surfaces are included in the correction scheme. This scheme might be useful for the design of validation experiments in non-homogeneous terrain. Received April 9, 1997 Revised July 16, 1997     

Wavelet Analysis of Intermittent Turbulent Transport in the Atmospheric Surface Layer over a Monsoon Trough Region

The structure of the turbulence in the atmospheric surface layer over a monsoon trough region has been studied using structural analysis based on wavelet transform. The observational site is located at the eastern (wet) end of the monsoon trough region, characterized by high moisture in the atmospheric surface layer. On the average relative humidity varied from 70% to 100% during the experiment. The wind and temperature data, collected at Kharagpur (22°25' N, 87°18' E) at six observational hours of a day in June 1990 during the Monsoon Trough Boundary Layer Experiment (MONTBLEX), have been utilized in the study. The wind and instantaneous momentum flux time series were decomposed into 12 scales using the Haar wavelet transform. The eddies exhibited a large temporal variability generating intermittency in the energy and flux distributions. A criterion based on the isotropy has been suggested for separating the large eddies from the small eddies. At the separation scale the isotropy coefficient drops sharply. It is shown that the intermittency in the small eddies resulted from the spatial variation of energy, and deviation of velocity statistics from the Gaussian distribution known as flatness. The deviation from the -5/3 power law has been attributed to the increased mean values of, (i) the coefficient of variation of energy, and (ii) the flatness factor, in the inertial subrange. The decomposition of the instantaneous momentum flux time series reveals that the major contribution to the total flux arises from the large eddies. The quadrant analysis of the momentum flux shows that ejections and sweeps account for a substantial part of the total flux, and quantifies the relative importance of the various spatial scales that contribute to the transport of momentum.     

In the Core of the Night-Effects of Intermittent Mixing on a Horizontally Heterogeneous Surface

Intermittent breakdowns that accompany wind gusts at the surface are responsible for a large fraction of the turbulent exchange between the surface and the upper boundary layer in the core of clear nights. Vertical and horizontal structure of the breakdowns are investigated using data from a network of 26 stations in an area of 30 km × 30 km. Surface heterogeneity in the area includes complex terrain with different types of land cover. We treat the fine-scale landscape structure near sensors (sheltering) as a separate component of heterogeneity. These features have important consequences on the spatial distribution of mean variables and surface fluxes. We found that breakdowns connect the surface layer to a higher level (level H_C). Weak wind gusts below a threshold (approximately 1.5 m s^-1) mix the air down to the colder ground, cooling the surface layer. On the other hand, wind gusts above this threshold promote mixing with upper levels, warming the surface layer. The spatial maximum of surface temperature over the network can be used as an estimate of the temperature at H_C, allowing vertical gradients and stability to be approximated. Minimum temperature is a function of topography and sheltering. Appreciable surface fluxes at night occur primarily at high, open locations, and can be large enough there to influencearea-averaged values. Surface-fluxparameterizations currently used in mesoscale models were tested first by estimating fluxes at each station and aggregating, and then by formingarea-averages before estimating fluxes. Results show that these formulations underestimate the average surface fluxes over a region for most of the nights.     

Simulating the Carbon Cycling of Northern Peatlands Using a Land Surface Scheme Coupled to a Wetland Carbon Model (CLASS3W-MWM)

Northern peatlands store approximately one-third of the terrestrial soil carbon (C), although they cover only 3% of the global land mass. Northern peatlands can be subdivided into bogs and fens based on their hydrology and biogeochemistry. Peatland hydrology and biogeochemistry are tightly coupled to climate and, therefore, may be very sensitive to climate variability and change. To address the fate of the large peatland soil C storage under a future changed climate, a peatland C model, the McGill Wetland Model (MWM), was coupled to a land surface climate model (the wetland version of the Canadian Land Surface Scheme, CLASS3W), referred as CLASS3W-MWM. We evaluated the CLASS3W-MWM for a bog (Mer Bleue, located at 45.41°N, 75.48°W, in eastern Canada) and a poor fen (Degerö Stormyr, located at 64°11′N, 19°33′E, in northern Sweden).

CLASS3W-MWM captured the magnitude and direction of the present day C cycling very well for both bogs and fens. Moreover, the seasonal and interannual variability were reproduced reasonably well. Root mean square errors (RMSE) were <0.65 and the degree of agreements (d*) were >0.8 for the components of net ecosystem production (NEP) for both the Mer Bleue bog and the Degerö Stormyr fen. The performance of the coupled model for both bog and fen is similar to that of the stand-alone MWM driven by observed weather rather than simulated surface and soil climate. This modelling study suggests that northern peatlands are hydrologically and thermally conservative ecosystems. It was also shown that C cycling for bogs and fens was more sensitive to changes in air temperature than precipitation. Changes in temperature within the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projected range switch the peatlands from a present-day C sink to a source, but projected changes in precipitation still maintain the peatlands as a C sink, although to a somewhat lesser degree. Increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentration enhances C sequestration for both bogs and fens. Our sensitivity analysis suggests that northern peatlands respond to changes in temperature, precipitation and doubled CO₂ concentration in a highly non-linear way. The sensitivity of C cycling in northern peatlands with respect to changes in air temperature, precipitation and the concentration of atmospheric CO₂ together is not a simple addition or subtraction of the sensitivity of the individual changes. Therefore, the sensitivity of a combination of changes in temperature, precipitation and doubled CO₂ concentration is very different from the sensitivity of peatlands to each environmental variable on their own. Our sensitivity analysis suggests that fens have a narrower tolerance to climate changes than bogs.

RÉSUMÉ [Traduit par la rédaction] Les tourbières du Nord renferment approximativement le tiers du carbone se trouvant dans le sol terrestre, même si elles ne couvrent que 3% des terres du globe. On peut subdiviser les tourbières du Nord en tourbières hautes et en tourbières basses selon leur hydrologie et leur biogéochimie. L'hydrologie et la biogéochimie des tourbières sont intimement liées au climat et peuvent donc être très sensibles à la variabilité et au changement climatique. Pour étudier comment évoluera le stockage du carbone dans les grands terrains tourbeux sous un climat futur modifié, nous avons couplé un modèle de carbone de tourbière, le McGill Wetland Model (MWM), à un modèle climatique de surface terrestre (la version terres humides du CLASS3W canadien), c'est-à-dire le CLASS3W–MWM. Nous avons évalué le CLASS3W–MWM pour une tourbière haute (Mer Bleue, situé à 45,41°N, 75,48°O, dans l'est du Canada) et pour une tourbière basse ombrotrophe (Degerö Stormyr, situé à 64°11′N, 19°33′E, dans le nord de la Suède).

Le CLASS3W–MWM a très bien capturé la grandeur et la direction du recyclage actuel du carbone, tant pour les tourbières hautes que pour les tourbières basses. De plus, la variabilité saisonnière et interannuelle a été raisonnablement bien reproduire. Les écarts-types étaient <0,65 et les degrés de concordance (d*) étaient >0,8 pour les composantes de la production nette de l’écosystème tant pour la tourbière haute Mer Bleue que pour la tourbière basse Degerö Stormyr. La performance du modèle couplé pour la tourbière haute et la tourbière basse est semblable à celle du MWM autonome piloté par des conditions observées plutôt que par un climat simulé de la surface et du sol. Cette étude par modèle suggère que les tourbières du Nord sont des écosystèmes hydrologiquement et thermiquement conservatifs. Il a aussi été démontré que le recyclage du carbone pour les tourbières hautes et basses était plus sensible aux changements dans la température de l'air que dans les précipitations. Des changements de température de l'ordre de ceux projetés par le Groupe d'experts intergouvernemental sur l’évolution du climat (GIEC) font que les actuels puits de carbone que constituent les tourbières se transforment en sources, mais les changements projetés dans les précipitations maintiennent encore les tourbières comme des puits de carbone, quoique dans une moindre mesure. L'accroissement de la concentration du CO₂ atmosphérique améliore la séquestration du carbone à la fois pour les tourbières hautes et les tourbières basses. Notre analyse de sensibilité suggère que les tourbières du Nord réagissent aux changements dans la température et les précipitations et à une concentration doublée de CO₂ d'une façon fort peu linéaire. La sensibilité du recyclage du carbone dans les tourbières du Nord par rapport aux changements dans la température de l'air, les précipitations et la concentration du CO₂ atmosphérique ensemble n'est pas une simple addition ou soustraction de la sensibilité aux changements individuels. Par conséquent, la sensibilité à une combinaison de changements dans la température et les précipitations et à une concentration doublée de CO₂ est très différente de la sensibilité des tourbières à chaque variable environnementale prise seule. Notre analyse de sensibilité suggère que les tourbières basses ont une plus faible tolérance aux changements climatiques que les tourbières hautes.     

Trends in Drought Frequency – the Fate of DOC Export From British Peatlands

There is increasing evidence that drought is leading to increased loss of dissolved organic carbon from upland peats. Therefore, this study endeavours to understand the severity and frequency of the scale of drought responsible for driving the observed changes; and, by reconstructing climatic records, to understand whether such droughts are increasing in severity and frequency. The study suggests that there are two levels of drought severity important in the peatlands: a hydrological drought that causes hydrophobic effects in the upper peat profile lasting 3–4 years in duration, and a more severe biogeochemical drought that triggers new mechanisms of DOC production and decade-long effects. The study uses long term climate data from Central England and Northern England to reconstructs depth to water table for an upland peat catchment back to 1766 and shows that hydrological drought has a return period of 25 years and that biogeochemical drought has a return period of 15.5 years. Statistical modelling of the time series of annual droughts shows only weak evidence for an increasing frequency of severe droughts since 1766, but stronger evidence for the recent past. The return period of drought of sufficient severity to cause biogeochemical response is coming close to the length of effect such a drought would have, i.e. trends in drought frequency mean that peatlands may no longer be resilient to the impact of drought, with dire consequences for the storage of carbon in these environments.     

Permafrost Thaw Accelerates in Boreal Peatlands During Late-20th Century Climate Warming

Permafrost covers 25% of the land surface in the northern hemisphere, where mean annual ground temperature is less than 0°C. A 1.4–5.8 °C warming by 2100 will likely change the sign of mean annual air and ground temperatures over much of the zones of sporadic and discontinuous permafrost in the northern hemisphere, causing widespread permafrost thaw. In this study, I examined rates of discontinuous permafrost thaw in the boreal peatlands of northern Manitoba, Canada, using a combination of tree-ring analyses to document thaw rates from 1941–1991 and direct measurements of permanent benchmarks established in 1995 and resurveyed in 2002. I used instrumented records of mean annual and seasonal air temperatures, mean winter snow depth, and duration of continuous snow pack from climate stations across northern Manitoba to analyze temporal and spatial trends in these variables and their potential impacts on thaw. Permafrost thaw in central Canadian peatlands has accelerated significantly since 1950, concurrent with a significant, late-20th-century average climate warming of +1.32 °C in this region. There were strong seasonal differences in warming in northern Manitoba, with highest rates of warming during winter (+1.39 °C to +1.66 °C) and spring (+0.56 °C to +0.78 °C) at southern climate stations where permafrost thaw was most rapid. Projecting current warming trends to year 2100, I show that trends for north-central Canada are in good agreement with general circulation models, which suggest a 4–8 °C warming at high latitudes. This magnitude of warming will begin to eliminate most of the present range of sporadic and discontinuous permafrost in central Canada by 2100.     

地面风对瓦里关山大气CH4本底浓度的影响分析

使用1994年7月至1996年12月大气CH4和地面风现场连续观测资料,分析了瓦里关全球大气本底基准站（36°17′N, 100°54′E,海拔3816 m）地面风变化对大气CH4本底浓度的影响。结果表明,水平风向、风速和垂直风向、风速的变化对大气CH4观测值的影响在春、夏、秋、冬季有明显不同,水平风向NE—ENE—E为CH4测量最主要的局地影响非本底扇区,静风及水平风速大于10 m/s、垂直风速大于±1 m/s对观测结果都有较大影响;由的统计平均还给出了此段期间瓦里关大气CH4在不同季节的浓度分布范围和日变化类型,并分析了可能成因;将地面风数据作为大气CH4本底资料的过滤因子之一,提出了适用于不同使用目的和要求的我国内陆高原大气CH4本底数据筛选方法,本底数据留存率约为原始资料量的50%。     

稻田甲烷排放及产生、转化、输送机理

通过对中国五大水稻产区稻田甲烷排放的多年观测实验,描述了稻田甲烷排放的时空变化规律及特征并分析研究了其形成机理。稻田甲烷排放的日变化有四种类型,甲烷的传输效率是日变化形成的主要因素。稻田甲烷土壤中排放率的季节变化型式在不同的地区是不同的,这取决于气温变化、水稻品种、施肥及水管理等不同因素。甲烷产生主要发生在稻田土壤耕作还原层（2～20 cm）,氧化主要发生在水土交界面的氧化层和根部氧化膜,并受多种因子的影响。土壤中的甲烷通过三个路径向大气排放,不同时期三个路径在甲烷传输中的相对重要性不同。施用化肥和沼渣肥可以降低土壤中甲烷的产生和排放,而有机肥会增加土壤中甲烷的产生和排放。中国的稻田每年向大气中排放9.67～12.66百万吨甲烷,全球稻田甲烷的总排放量约为35～56 Tg/a。     

Uncertainty in Predicting the Effect of Climatic Change on the Carbon Cycling of Canadian Peatlands

Northern peatlands play an important role globally in the cycling of C, through the exchange of CO2 with the atmosphere, the emission of CH4, the production and export of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and the storage of C. Under 2 × CO2 GCM scenarios, most Canadian peatlands will be exposed to increases in mean annual temperature ranging between 2 and 6° C and increases in mean annual precipitation of 0 to 15 %, with the most pronounced changes occurring during the winter. The increase in CO2 uptake by plants, through warmer temperatures and elevated atmospheric CO2, is likely to be offset by increased soil respiration rates in response to warmer soils and lowered water tables. CH4 emissions are likely to decrease in most peatlands because of lowered water tables, except where the peat surface adjusts to fluctuating water tables, and in permafrost, where the collapse of dry plateau and palsa will lead to increase CH4 emission. There likely will be little change in DOC production, but DOC export to water bodies will decrease as runoff decreases. The storage of C in peatlands is sensitive to all C cycle components and is difficult to predict. The challenge is to develop quantitative models capable of making these predictions for different peatlands. We present some qualitative responses, with levels of uncertainty. There will be, however, as much variation in response to climatic change within a peatland as there will be among peatland regions.     

从全球地表平均温度时间序列中识别自然气候变率信号

全球表面平均温度受到自然变率和人为强迫两方面影响。本文研究有关1900年1月—2009年3月全球平均温度时间序列即自然气候变率中的信号鉴别和剔除问题,研发了一系列简单的、基于物理学的方法,并将其应用于区分厄尔尼诺—南方涛动(ENSO),高纬度大陆冬季海洋气团平流变化和由火山爆发导致的大量气溶胶进入平流层这三种自然现象对气候的影响。在ENSO和高纬度温度平流的作用从全球平均温度的记录中剔除之后,显示于仪表的火山爆发及其变化的信号变得更加显而易见。随后火山爆发的影响就从记录中过滤掉,而剩下的时间序列则显示出自1950年以来全球气温几乎是一个单调的递增模式。结果还揭示,年际时间尺度海陆耦合的影响超过了ENSO和火山爆发。一般而言,全球陆地和海洋平均温度的情况紧密地同海洋气团主导陆地的那2~3个月相关。大西洋海面温度大振幅的扰动使这些耦合波动呈现为一个复杂的空间信号。     

国内外冬季风研究热点的文献计量对比分析

冬季风控制东亚大陆长达半年之久,对东亚地区冬、夏季环流变化有十分重要的制约作用,而东亚冬季风不仅是全球最强大的冬季风,也是北半球冬季最活跃的环流系统,它的异常变化可以引起全球冬季大气环流的变化,强东亚冬季风不仅会给东亚带来寒潮、低温冷害、冰冻雨雪等灾害性天气,也与中国北方春季沙尘天气和夏季洪涝灾害天气等紧密相连。     

A Measure of Inhomogeneity of the Land Surface and Parametrization of Turbulent Fluxes under Natural Conditions

Summary The effects of surface heterogeneity and nonstationarity on turbulent fluxes are parametrized by introducing an additional roughness length that corrects for deviations from Stationarity and Horizontal Homogeneity (SHH). Using data from the experiments of FIFE, KUREX, TARTEX and SADE, a relationship was detected between the underestimation of turbulent fluxes (the lack of balance in the surface energy budget) and terrain inhomogeneity. Based on the assumption that the parametrization obtained from these data is applicable for complex terrain surfaces in general, the paper presents some simple relationships for surface turbulent fluxes, bulk transfer coefficients, and roughness lengths. Received August 8, 1997 Revised March 9, 1998     

北京大气甲烷季变化及发展趋势

近年来北京大气中CH4含量仍在上升,但平均增长率已从1985～1989年的1.76%.a-1,下降到1990～1997年的0.50%.a-1;冬季和夏季两次出现峰值,表现出明显的双峰模态季节变化。但北京大气CH4变化的最大特点是年际季变化不均一,12年中,北京大气CH4共计增长185×10-9混和体积比,其中冬季增长的贡献为69×10-9混和体积比,约占总增长的37%;而夏季的增长贡献不足40×10-9混和体积比,约占总增长的21%。90年代以后,北京大气CH4增长率进一步减慢,主要原因是生物源排放不再增加,而非生物源排放量的增长是大气CH4继续增长的主要原因。     

基于自然邻点插值法的洱海湖面降水特征分析

湖面降水是影响湖泊水量和水质的重要因素之一,对湖面降水的研究有利于湖泊水环境的研究和治理。本文利用洱海周边11个气象站降水观测数据,对洱海周边站点的降水进行分析,并基于自然邻点插值法对洱海湖面降水进行分辨率为0.01°的网格插值,分析洱海湖面降水的分布特征。结果表明:洱海湖面降水分布时空差异显著,时间上具有季节性特征,夏季最多,秋季次之,冬季最少;空间上存在显著分布不均,降水高值中心位于洱海中部靠西岸湖湾区域,低值中心位于东南部湖区,最大格点降水量是最小格点的1.9倍;湖面降水存在明显的季节性空间振荡特征,降水的高值中心夏季略有北移向外呈发散性递减。洱海湖面降水时空分布特征的研究为大气湿沉降敏感区域和时段的划分提供数据支持,同时为湖泊水环境研究治理提供科学的技术支持。     

青藏高原上空甲烷的时空分布特征及其夏季高值形成机制分析

利用搭载在美国Aqua卫星上的大气红外探测仪(AIRS)观测资料反演的全球甲烷(CH_4)产品和NCEP再分析资料,分析了2003~2014年青藏高原上空CH_4的时空变化特征,探讨了夏季CH_4高值变化与季风的关系。研究结果表明:就青藏高原整体而言,CH_4浓度随高度增加递减;对流层中高层CH_4含量季节变化较为明显,其平均浓度在7~9月处于高值,6月、10月次之,其余月份处于低值。2003~2014年CH_4含量呈逐年上升趋势,年增长率约为4.66ppb(10-9)。高原上空CH_4空间分布分析显示,高原北部CH_4浓度高于南部地区。夏季风期间,随着高原上的强对流输送和上空南亚高压的阻塞,对流层中高层CH_4浓度明显增加并不断积累,在8月底至9月初出现最大值。在分析季风指数的基础上发现,夏季季风影响下的强对流输送是高原对流层中高层CH_4高值形成的主要原因之一,对流层中高层CH_4浓度最大值出现时间较季风指数的峰值滞后约半至一个月,随着夏季风的撤退,CH_4浓度高值迅速降低。     

Methane,carbon monoxide and methylchloroform in the southern hemisphere

New observational data on CH₄, CO and CH₃CCl₃ in the southern hemisphere are reported. The data are analysed for long term trends and seasonal cycles. CH₃CCl₃ data are used to scale the OH fields incorporated in a two dimensional model, which in turn, is used to constrain the magnitude of a global CH₄ source function. The possible causes of observed seasonality of CH₃CCl₃, CH₄ and CO are identified, and several other aspects of observed CH₄ variability are discussed.Possible future research directions are also given.