Extensional tectonics and North China Craton destruction:Insights from the magnetic susceptibility anisotropy (AMS) of granite and metamorphic core complex

The craton is a long-lived stable geologic unit on the Earth's surface. However, since the Mesozoic, the North China Craton(NCC) experienced large-scale lithospheric removal, the fundamental change of physical and chemical characteristics of the lithospheric mantle, widely distributed crustal deformation, and extensive magmatism. This complex evolution contrary to other cratons is called the NCC destruction. Widespread magmatism in the eastern NCC is an important response to the lithospheric removal at depth and crustal deformation on the surface. The plutons emplace under a tectonic context and therefore record the information of the tectonics; especially, the anisotropy magnetic susceptibility(AMS) pattern of the pluton was acquired with the influence of regional stress. In the past fifteen years, about 22 plutons intruding during the different periods from the Late Triassic to the late stage of the Early Cretaceous have been studied with AMS. The emplacement mechanisms of plutons and the contemporary tectonic setting were discussed to constrain their relationship with the NCC destruction in different stages of magmatism. As a result, the Late Triassic, Early Jurassic, and Late Jurassic plutons exhibit consistent N(E)-S(W)trending magnetic lineations. The early stage of Early Cretaceous plutons display NW-SE trending magnetic lineations, while the late stage of Early Cretaceous plutons show magnetic lineations with various orientations. Combined with previous studies, it is concluded that the emplacements of the plutons intruding in these three stages were controlled by weak N(E)-S(W) trending extension, regional NW-SE trending extension, and weak extension in the shallow crustal level, respectively. The transformation of regional extension from the N(E)-S(W) to the NW-SE direction was accompanied by a strain-increasing tendency. The extensional tectonics in the eastern NCC was interpreted to represent the interaction between Mongol-Okhotsk belt, PaleoPacific plate, and eastern Eurasian continent.     

Subduction and retreating of the western Pacific plate resulted in lithospheric mantle replacement and coupled basin-mountain respond in the North China Craton

The North China Craton (NCC) witnessed Mesozoic vigorous tectono-thermal activities and transition in the nature of deep lithosphere. These processes took place in three periods: (1) Late Paleozoic to Early Jurassic (～170 Ma); (2) Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (160–140 Ma); (3) Early Cretaceous to Cenozoic (140 Ma to present). The last two stages saw the lithospheric mantle replacement and coupled basin-mountain response within the North China Craton due to subduction and retreating of the Paleo-Pacific plate, and is the emphasis in this paper. In the first period, the subduction and closure of the Paleo- Asian Ocean triggered the back-arc extension, syn-collisional compression and then post-collisional extension accompanied by ubiquitous magmatism along the northern margin of the NCC. Similar processes happened in the southern margin of the craton as the subduction of the Paleo-Tethys ocean and collision with the South China Block. These processes had caused the chemical modification and mechanical destruction of the cratonic margins. The margins could serve as conduits for the asthenosphere upwelling and had the priority for magmatism and deformation. The second period saw the closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk ocean and the shear deformation and magmatism induced by the drifting of the Paleo-Pacific slab. The former led to two pulse of N-S trending compression (Episodes A and B of the Yanshan Movement) and thus the pre-existing continental marginal basins were disintegrated into sporadically basin and range province by the Mesozoic magmatic plutons and NE-SW trending faults. With the anticlockwise rotation of the Paleo-Pacific moving direction, the subduction-related magmatism migrated into the inner part of the craton and the Tanlu fault became normal fault from a sinistral one. The NCC thus turned into a back-arc extension setting at the end of this period. In the third period, the refractory subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) was firstly remarkably eroded and thinned by the subduction-induced asthenospheric upwelling, especially those beneath the weak zones (i.e., cratonic margins and the lithospheric Tanlu fault zone). Then a slightly lithospheric thickening occurred when the upwelled asthenosphere got cool and transformed to be lithospheric mantle accreted (～125 Ma) beneath the thinned SCLM. Besides, the magmatism continuously moved southeastward and the extensional deformations preferentially developed in weak zones, which include the Early Cenozoic normal fault transformed from the Jurassic thrust in the Trans-North Orogenic Belt, the crustal detachment and the subsidence of Bohai basin caused by the continuous normal strike slip of the Tanlu fault, the Cenozoic graben basins originated from the fault depression in the Trans-North Orogenic Belt, the Bohai Basin and the Sulu Orogenic belt. With small block size, inner lithospheric weak zones and the surrounding subductions/collisions, the Mesozoic NCC was characterized by (1) lithospheric thinning and crustal detachment triggered by the subduction-induced asthenospheric upwelling. Local crustal contraction and orogenesis appeared in the Trans-North Orogenic Belt coupled with the crustal detachment; (2) then upwelled asthenosphere got cool to be newly-accreted lithospheric mantle and crustal grabens and basin subsidence happened, as a result of the subduction zone retreating. Therefore, the subduction and retreating of the western Pacific plate is the outside dynamics which resulted in mantle replacement and coupled basin-mountain respond within the North China Craton. We consider that the Mesozoic decratonization of the North China Craton, or the Yanshan Movement, is a comprehensive consequence of complex geological processes proceeding surrounding and within craton, involving both the deep lithospheric mantle and shallow continental crust.     

Dynamics of thinning and destruction of the continental cratonic lithosphere: Numerical modeling

Thinning of the cratonic lithosphere is common in nature, but its destruction is not. In either case, the mechanisms for both thinning and destruction are still widely under debate. In this study, we have made a review on the processes and mechanisms of thinning and destruction of cratonic lithosphere according to previous studies of geological/geophysical observations and numerical simulations, with specific application to the North China Craton (NCC). Two main models are suggested for the thinning and destruction of the NCC, both of which are related to subduction of the oceanic lithosphere. One is the “bottom-up” model, in which the deeply subducting slab perturbs and induces upwelling from the hydrous mantle transition zone (MTZ). The upwelling produces mantle convection and erodes the bottom of the overriding lithosphere by the fluid-melt-peridotite reaction. Mineral compositions and rheological properties of the overriding lithospheric mantle are changed, allowing downward dripping of lithospheric components into the asthenosphere. Consequently, lithospheric thinning or even destruction occurs. The other is the “top-down” model, characterized by the flat subduction of oceanic slab beneath the overriding cratonic lithosphere. Dehydration reactions from the subducting slab would significantly hydrate the lithospheric mantle and decrease its rheological strength. Then the subduction angle may be changed from shallow to steep, inducing lateral upwelling of the asthenosphere. This upwelling would heat and weaken the overriding lithospheric mantle, which led to the weakened lithospheric mantle dripping into the asthenosphere. These two models have some similarities, in that both take the subducting oceanic slab and relevant fluid migration as the major driving mechanism for thinning or destruction of the overriding cratonic lithosphere. The key difference between the two models is the effective depth of the subducting oceanic slab. One is stagnation and flattening in the MTZ, whereas the other is flat subduction at the bottom of the cratonic lithosphere. In the NCC, the eastern lithosphere was likely affected by subduction of the Izanagi slab during the Mesozoic, which would have perturbed the asthenosphere and the MTZ, and induced fluid migration beneath the NCC lithosphere. The upwelling fluid may largely have controlled the reworking of the NCC lithosphere. In order to discuss and analyze these two models further, it is crucial to understand the role of fluids in the subduction zone and the MTZ. Here, we systematically discuss phase transformations of hydrous minerals and the transport processes of water in the subduction system. Furthermore, we analyze possible modes of fluid activity and the problems to explore the applied feasibility of each model. In order to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms for thinning and destruction of cratonic lithosphere, we also consider four additional possible dynamic models: extension-induced lithospheric thinning, compression-induced lithospheric thickening and delamination, large-scale mantle convection and thermal erosion, and mantle plume erosion. Compared to the subduction-related models presented here, these four models are primarily controlled by the relatively simple and single process and mechanism (extension, compression, convection, and mantle plume, respectively), which could be the secondary driving mechanisms for the thinning and destruction of lithosphere.     

华北东部晚中生代伸展构造作用

本文在对华北东部晚中生代变质核杂岩、原型裂陷盆地群分布特征研究的基础上,结合区域地壳和上地幔的地球物理场特征,分析了变质核杂岩构造、裂陷盆地群的主要控制因素和岩石圈巨大减薄作用的形成机理,阐明了华北东部晚中生代的构造演化受太平洋板块俯冲效应、扬子板块碰撞挤压和软流圈大规模上涌联合作用的控制,而地表、中－上地壳分界和Moho界面是深部地质过程和浅部地质构造之间耦合的关键界面.     

Regional differences in crustal structure of the North China Craton from receiver functions

Moho depth and crustal average Poisson's ratio for 823 stations are obtained by H-? stacking of receiver functions. These, together with topography and receiver function amplitude information, were used to study the crustal structure beneath the North China Craton(NCC). The results suggest that modified and preserved crust coexist beneath the craton with generally Airy-type isostatic equilibrium. The equilibrium is relatively low in the eastern NCC and some local areas in the central and western NCC, which correlates well with regional geology and tectonic features. Major differences in the crust were observed beneath the eastern, central, and western NCC, with average Moho depths of 33, 37, and 42 km and average Poisson's ratios of 0.268, 0.267 and 0.264, respectively. Abnormal Moho depths and Poisson's ratios are mainly present in the rift zones, the northern and southern edges of the central NCC, and tectonic boundaries. The crust beneath Ordos retains the characteristics of typical craton. Poisson's ratio increases roughly linearly as Moho depth decreases in all three parts of the NCC with different slopes. Receiver function amplitudes are relatively large in the northern edge of the eastern and central NCC, and small in and near the rifts. The Yanshan Mountains and southern part of the Shanxi rift show small-scale variations in the receiver-function amplitudes. These observations suggest that overall modification and thinning in the crust occurred in the eastern NCC, and local crustal modification occurred in the central and western NCC. Different crustal structures in the eastern, central, and western NCC suggest different modification processes and mechanisms. The overall destruction of the crustal structure in the eastern NCC is probably due to the westward subduction of the Pacific Plate during the Meso-Cenozoic time; the local modifications of the crust in the central and western NCC may be due to repeated reactivations at zones with a heterogeneous structure by successive thermal-tectonic events during the long-term evolution of the NCC.     

Crustal deformation and dynamics of Early Cretaceous in the North China Craton

The Early Cretaceous represents a peak period of the North China Craton(NCC) destruction. A comprehensive analysis of crustal deformation during this period can reveal processes and dynamics of the destruction. The peak destruction of the NCC was associated with intense extension whose representative deformation products are metamorphic core complexes(MCCs), extensional domes and rifted basins. These MCCs occurred along both northern and southern margins of the NCC, and resulted from synchronous extension and magmatism, showing difference from the typical orogen-type MCCs in many aspects.The MCCs of the Early Cretaceous were replaced by extensional domes under relatively weak extension and uplift. In contrast to a major depression-type basin of the Early Cretaceous in the western NCC, rifted basins of the same age in the eastern NCC appeared as medium-to small-scale ones extensively. In the eastern NCC, the rifted basins north of the Bohai Bay are characterized by a feature similar to an active rift whereas those south of the Bohai present similarity to a passive rift. Various sorts of extensional structures developed during the peak destruction indicate a stable stress state of NE-SE extension over the entire central to eastern NCC, consistent with the plate margin-driven stress field. Spatial distribution of the extensional structures presents an 1800 km wide back-arc extension region in the central to eastern NCC, consistent with the Paleo-Pacific slab rollback model following flat subduction. Temporal-spatial variation of initial extension and volcanic activity during the peak period also supports the rollback model right after the flat oceanic slab. The crustal deformation evolution demonstrates that the peak destruction of the NCC took place after the B-episode compression of the Yanshan Movement of the earliest Early Cretaceous and terminated with onset of the C-episode compression of the earliest Late Cretaceous.     

Renewed profile of the Mesozoic magmatism in Korean Peninsula: Regional correlation and broader implication for cratonic destruction in the North China Craton

Widespread Mesozoic magmatism occurs in the Korean Peninsula (KP). The status quo is poles apart between the northern and southern parts in characterizing its distribution and nature, with the nearly absence of any related information in North Korea. We have the opportunity to have conducted geological investigations in North Korea and South Korea during the past ten years through international cooperation programs. This led to the revelation of a number of granitoids and related volcanic rocks and thus facilitates the comparison with those in East China and Japan. Mesozoic granitoids in the KP can be divisible into three age groups: the Triassic group with a peak age of ~220 Ma, the Jurassic one of ~190–170 Ma and the late Early Cretaceous one of ~110 Ma. The Triassic intrusions include syenite, calc-alkaline to alkaline granite and minor kimberlite in the Pyeongnam Basin of North Korea. They have been considered to form in post-orogenic settings related to the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) or the Dabie-Sulu Orogenic Belt (DSOB). The Jurassic granitoids constitute extensive occurrence in the KP and are termed as the Daebo-period magmatism. They correlate well with coeval counterparts in NE China encompassing the northeastern part of the North China Craton (NCC) and the eastern segment of the CAOB. They commonly consist of biotite or two-mica granites and granodiorites, with some containing small dark diorite enclaves. On one hand, Early Jurassic to early Middle Jurassic magmatic rocks are rare in most areas of the NCC, whilst Middle-Late Jurassic ones are not developed in the KP. On the other hand, both NCC and KP host abundant Cretaceous granites. However, the present data revealed contrasting age peaks, with ~130–125 Ma in the NCC and ~110–105 Ma in the KP. Cretaceous granites in the KP comprise the dominant biotite granites and a few amphibole granites. The former exhibit mildly fractionated REE patterns and zircon ε _Hf(t) values from -15 to -25, whereas the latter feature strongly fractionated REE patterns and zircon ε _Hf(t) values from -10 to -1. Both granites contain inherited zircons of ~1.8–1.9 or ~2.5 Ga. These geochemical characters testify to their derivation from re-melting distinct protoliths in ancient basement. Another Cretaceous magmatic sub-event has been entitled as the Gyeongsang volcanism, which is composed of bimodal calc-alkaline volcanic rocks of 94–55 Ma and granitic-hypabyssal granitic bodies of 72–70 Ma. Synthesizing the Mesozoic magmatic rocks across the KP, NCC and Japan can lead to the following highlights: (1) All Triassic granites in the NCC, KP and Japan have similar characteristics in petrology, chronology and geochemistry. Therefore, the NCC, KP and Japan tend to share the same tectonic setting during the Triassic, seemingly within the context of Indosinian orogensis. (2) Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous magmatic rocks in the NCC seem to define two episodes: episode A from 175 to 157 Ma and episode B from 157 to 135 Ma. Jurassic magmatic rocks in the KP span in age mainly from 190 to 170 Ma, whereas 160–135 Ma ones are rare. With the exception of ~197 Ma Funatsu granite, Jurassic magmatic rocks are absent in Japan. (3) Cretaceous granites in the KP have a peak age of ~110, ~20 Ma younger than those in the NCC, while Japan is exempt from ~130–100 Ma granites. (4) The spatial-temporal distribution and migratory characteristics of the Jurassic-Cretaceous magmatic rocks in Japan, KP, and NE China-North China indicate that the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate might not be operative before Late Cretaceous (~130–120 Ma). (5) Late Cretaceous magmatic rocks (~90–60 Ma) occur in the southwestern corner of the KP and also in Japan, coinciding with the metamorphic age of ~90–70 Ma in the Sanbagawa metamorphic belt of Japan. The magmatic-metamorphic rock associations and their spatial distribution demonstrate the affinities of sequentially subduction zone, island arc and back-arc basin from Japan to Korea, arguing for the Pacific plate subduction during Late Cretaceous. (6) This study raises another possibility that the Mesozoic cratonic destruction in the NCC, which mainly occurred during ~150–120 Ma, might not only be due to the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate, but also owe much to the intraplate geodynamic forces triggered by other adjacent continental plates like the Eurasian and Indian plates.     

Crustal azimuthal anisotropy in the trans-North China orogen and adjacent regions from receiver functions

The North China Craton (NCC) is an important part of eastern China. Recent studies have shown that the eastern NCC (ENCC) has undergone significant lithospheric thinning and destruction since the late Mesozoic. Destruction of the cratonic lithosphere is necessarily accompanied by crustal deformation. Therefore, a detailed crustal deformation model can provide basic observational constraints for understanding the process and mechanisms of the destruction of the NCC. In this study, we estimated the crustal azimuthal anisotropy beneath 198 broadband stations in the NCC with a joint analysis of Ps waves converted at the Moho from radial and transverse receiver function data. We also performed a harmonic analysis to test the reliability of the measured anisotropy. We obtained robust crustal azimuthal anisotropy beneath 23 stations that are mostly located on the western margin of the Bohai Bay Basin, Yin-Yan orogenic belt, and Taihang Mountains, which reflects the crustal deformation characteristics in those regions. The crustal shear wave splitting time was found to range from 0.05 s to 0.68 s, with an average value of 0.23 s, which reveals a distinct crustal anisotropy in the Trans-North China Orogen (TNCO) and its adjacent areas. Our analysis of the results suggests that the strong NW-SE tectonic extension in the late Mesozoic and Cenozoic played an important role in crustal anisotropy in this region. In addition, the E-W trending crustal anisotropy on the margin of the Bohai Bay Basin indicates an effect of the ENE-WSW trending horizontal principal compressive stress. The crustal anisotropy in the Yin-Yan orogenic belt may be an imprint of the multiple-phase shortening of a dominant N-S direction from the early-to-middle Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous. Stations in the Taihang Mountains show large splitting times and well-aligned NW-SE fast directions that correlate with those measured from SKS splitting and that are possibly related to the lithospheric modification and magmatic underplating from the Late Mesozoic to Cenozoic in this area.     

Geodynamics of decratonization and related magmatism and mineralization in the North China Craton

The North China Craton(NCC) experienced strong destruction(i.e., decratonization) during the Mesozoic, which triggered intensive magmatism, tectonism and thermal events and formed large-scale gold and other metal deposits in the eastern part of the craton. However, how the decratonization controls the formation and distribution of large-scale of gold and other metal deposits is not very clear. Based on a large number of published data and new results, this paper systematically summarizes all the data for the rock assemblages, chronology, geochemistry and petrogenesis of Mesozoic magmatic rocks, as well as for the mineralizing ages of gold and other metal deposits and the evolution of the Mesozoic basins in the eastern NCC. The results are used to restore the extensional rates of Mesozoic to Cenozoic basins and the strike-slip distance of the Tanlu Fault, to ascertain the location of the Paleo-Pacific plate subduction zones during the Mesozoic to Cenozoic, and to reconstruct the temporal and spatial distribution of Mesozoic gold and other metal deposits and magmatic rocks in the eastern NCC. It is obtained that the magmatism and mineralization in the eastern NCC westward migrate from east to west during the Early to Middle Jurassic, but they eastward migrate from west to east during the Early Cretaceous. The metallogenesis of these deposits is genetically related to magmatism, and the magmas provided some ore-forming materials and fluids for the generation of metal deposits. The geodynamic mechanism of decratonization and related magmatism and mineralization is proposed, i.e., the westward low-angle subduction of the Paleo-Pacific slab beneath the NCC formed continental magmatic arc with plenty of porphyry Cu-Mo-Au deposits in the Jurassic, similar to the Andean continental arc in South America. The mantle wedge was metasomatized by the fluids/melts derived from the subducting slab, laying a material foundation for hydrothermal mineralization in the Early Cretaceous. While the rollback of the subducting slab with gradually increasing subduction angle and the retreat of the subduction zones during the Early Cretaceous induced strong destruction of the craton and the formation of extensive magmatic rocks and large-scale gold and other metal deposits.     

Syn-tectonic sedimentation and its linkage to fold-thrusting in the region of Zhangjiakou,North Hebei,China

The timing of the "Yanshanian Movement" and the tectonic setting that controlled the Yanshan fold-and-thrust belt during Jurassic time in China are still matters of controversy. Sediments that filled the intramontane basins in the Yanshan belt perfectly record the history of "Yanshanian Movement" and the tectonic background of these basins. Recognizing syn-tectonic sedimentation, clarifying its relationship with structures, and accurately defining strata ages to build up a correct chronostratigraphic framework are the key points to further reveal the timing and kinematics of tectonic deformation in the Yanshan belt from the Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous. This paper applies both tectonic and sedimentary methods on the fold-and-thrust belt and intramontane basins in the Zhangjiakou area, which is located at the intersection between the western Yanshan and northern Taihangshan. Our work suggests that the pre-defined "Jurassic strata" should be re-dated and sub-divided into three strata units: a Late Triassic to Early Jurassic unit, a Middle Jurassic unit, and a Late Jurassic to early Early Cretaceous unit. Under the control of growth fold-and-thrust structures, five types of growth strata developed in different growth structures: fold-belt foredeep type,thrust-belt foredeep type, fault-propagation fold-thrust structure type, fault-bend fold-thrust structure type, and fault-bend foldthrust plus fault-propagation fold composite type. The reconstructed "source-to-sink" systems of Late Triassic to Early Jurassic,Middle Jurassic and Late Jurassic to early Early Cretaceous times, which are composed of a fold-and-thrust belt and flexure basins, imply that the "Yanshanian Movement" in our study area started in the Middle Jurassic. During Middle Jurassic to early Early Cretaceous times, there have been at least three stages of fold-thrust events that developed "Laramide-type" basementinvolved fold-thrust structures and small-scale intramontane broken "axial basins". The westward migration of a "pair" of basement-involved fold-thrust belt and flexure basins might have been controlled by flat subduction of the western Paleo-Pacific slab from the Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous.     

华北克拉通热结构差异性特征及其意义

华北克拉通破坏存在空间上的差异性,至今其内在的动力学机制仍存在较大的争议,这种差异性在岩石圈热结构上必然有所表现.广义上岩石圈热结构包括热流结构、温度场结构和热岩石圈厚度,是揭示岩石圈演化及其内在动力学过程的重要基础.基于二维地震剖面和大地热流数据,建立二维稳态热传导有限元模型,对华北克拉通东部岩石圈热结构进行模拟计算并与西部进行对比分析,在此基础上对比热岩石圈与地震岩石圈厚度差异的变化.结果显示,华北克拉通东、西部岩石圈热结构有着较为明显的差异,地幔热流值波动范围分别在24~44/20.5~24.5mW·m~(-2),壳幔比1.61~0.70/1.84~1.51,以1300℃等温线计算得到的热岩石圈厚度变化范围在75~139km/128~162km.华北克拉通东部相对西部有着较高的深部地幔热流值和较小的地震/热岩石圈厚度差异,这可能意味着东部软流圈地幔有效黏度相比西部低,估算差异可达2~3个数量级.     

Field and geochemical data bearing on the development of a mesozoic volcano-tectonic rift zone and back-arc basin in southernmost South America

A broad zone of dominantly subaerial silicic volcanism associated with regional extensional faulting developed in southern South America during the Middle Jurassic, contemporaneously with the initiation of plutonism along the present Pacific continental margin. Stratigraphic variations observed in cross sections through the silicic Jurassic volcanics along the Pacific margin of southernmost South America indicate that this region of the rift zone developed as volcanism continued during faulting, subsidence and marine innundation. A deep, fault-bounded submarine trough formed near the Pacific margin of the southern part of the volcano-tectonic rift zone during the Late Jurassic. Tholeiitic magma intruded within the trough formed the mafic portion of the floor of this down-faulted basin. During the Early Cretaceous this basin separated an active calc-alkaline volcanic arc, founded on a sliver of continental crust, from the then volcanically quiescent South American continent. Geochemical data suggest that the Jurassic silicic volcanics along the Pacific margin of the volcano-tectonic rift zone were derived by crustal anatexis. Mafic lavas and sills which occur within the silicic volcanics have geochemical affinities with both the tholeiitic basalts forming the ophiolitic lenses which are the remnants of the mafic part of the back-arc basin floor, and also the calc-alkaline rocks of the adjacent Patagonian batholith and their flanking lavas which represent the eroded late Mesozoic calc-alkaline volcanic arc. The source of these tholeiitic and calc-alkaline igneous rocks was partially melted upper mantle material. The igneous and tectonic processes responsible for the development of the volcano-tectonic rift zone and the subsequent back-arc basin are attributed to diapirism in the upper mantle beneath southern South America. The tectonic setting and sequence of igneous and tectonic events suggest that diapirism may have been initiated in response to subduction.     

Heterogeneous destruction of the North China Craton: Coupled constraints from seismology and geodynamic numerical modeling

The prevailing academic view regards mantle flow and the metasomatism triggered by the subduction of the Pacific plate as the cause and mechanism for the destruction of the North China Craton (NCC). However, the geodynamic destruction process remains ambiguous, necessitating detailed information at this stage. Combining the structural images obtained by the exploration of dense seismic arrays and the geodynamic simulations inspired by numerical modeling, this paper arrives at the following conclusions: the spatial variation of the P- and S-wave velocities, as well as their velocity ratio in the mantle transition zone, are key evidences of the nonuniform dehydration of the Pacific plate, the subducted plate induces hot upwellings in the mantle transition zone (MTZ), resulting in the heterogeneous distribution of the melt/fluid beneath the craton, characterized by small scale anomalies in the seismic velocity field, and as revealed by dense seismic array observation, the heterogeneities in the upper mantle structure and deformation are the synthetic results of lithospheric strain localization and the heterogeneous distribution of the melt/fluid. It is known that the nonuniform dehydration of the Pacific slab and the heterogeneous distribution of the melt/fluid have occured in the Cenozoic. If these scenarios could have already occurred in the Early Cretaceous, their interaction with the NCC lithosphere would be the dynamic mechanism for the heterogeneous lithospheric destruction of the NCC. The inference in this study is significant for further reconciling the multidisciplinary evidences in the NCC.     

Petrogenesis and geodynamic significance of the Ganhe Formation lavas,eastern Great Xing'an Range,China: Evidence from geochemistry and geochronology

Mesozoic volcanic rocks are widespread throughout the Great Xing'an Range of northeastern China. However, there has been limited investigation into the age and petrogenesis of the Mesozoic volcanics in the eastern Great Xing'an Range. According to our research, the volcanic rocks of the Dayangshu Basin, eastern Great Xing'an Range are composed mainly of trachybasalt, basaltic andesite, and basaltic trachyandesite, with minor intermediate–basic pyroclastic rocks. In this study, the geochemistry and geochronology of the Mesozoic volcanic rocks are presented in order to discuss the petrogenesis and tectonic setting of the Ganhe Formation in the Dayangshu Basin. Zircon U–Pb dating by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry indicates that the Mesozoic lavas formed during the late Early Cretaceous (114.3–108.8 Ma). This suite of rocks exhibits a range of geochemical signatures indicating subduction‐related genesis, including: (i) calc‐alkaline to high‐K calc‐alkaline major element compositions; (ii) enrichment of large ion lithophile elements (e.g. Rb, Ba, K) and light rare earth elements (LREEs/HREEs =7.33–9.85); and (iii) weak depletion in high field strength elements (e.g. Nb, Ta, Ti). Furthermore, Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic data yield initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values of 0.70450–0.70463, positive ε_Nd(t) values of +1.8 to +3.3, and a mantle‐derived lead isotope composition. Combined with the regional tectonic evolution, the results of this study suggest that the Ganhe Group lavas are derived from decompression melting of a metasomatized (enriched) lithospheric mantle, related to asthenospheric upwelling, which resulted from lithospheric mantle delamination and produced extension of the continental margin following the subduction of the Paleo‐Pacific Plate.     

青藏高原P波速度层析成像与岩石圈结构

利用中国西部地震台网的数据,通过体波层析成像反演了青藏高原及邻域的三维P波速度结构.根据地壳和上地幔的速度变化和构造特征,重点讨论了下地壳流动、地幔上涌、岩石圈减薄以及与藏北新生代火山岩和藏南裂谷系的关系等问题.分析表明,青藏高原中、下地壳平均速度偏低,低速区主要分布在拉萨和羌塘块体内部,随着深度的增加逐渐扩大到松潘—甘孜块体.上述低速区之间多被高速带分隔,暗示地壳中、下部的韧性变形被限制在特定的区域,不太适于产生贯穿整个青藏高原的大规模横向流动.此外,地幔上涌也并非普遍发生于整个青藏高原,而是集中在羌塘、松潘—甘孜以及喜马拉雅东构造结附近,导致上述区域的岩石圈地幔较薄,并且伴生火山活动和岩浆作用.此外,由于印度大陆岩石圈在向北俯冲,板片下沉过程中引起地幔上涌,热流物质有可能上升进入地壳,这一作用对藏北新生代火山岩和藏南裂谷系的形成以及中、下地壳的韧性变形产生了明显的影响.     

Mesozoic mafic magmatism in North China: Implications for thinning and destruction of cratonic lithosphere

The North China Craton (NCC) has been thinned from >200 km to <100 km in its eastern part. The ancient subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) has been replaced by the juvenile SCLM in the Meoszoic. During this period, the NCC was destructed as indicated by extensive magmatism in the Early Cretaceous. While there is a consensus on the thinning and destruction of cratonic lithosphere in North China, it has been hotly debated about the mechanism of cartonic destruction. This study attempts to provide a resolution to current debates in the view of Mesozoic mafic magmatism in North China. We made a compilation of geochemical data available for Mesozoic mafic igneous rocks in the NCC. The results indicate that these mafic igneous rocks can be categorized into two series, manifesting a dramatic change in the nature of mantle sources at ~121 Ma. Mafic igneous rocks emplaced at this age start to show both oceanic island basalts (OIB)-like trace element distribution patterns and depleted to weakly enriched Sr-Nd isotope compositions. In contrast, mafic igneous rocks emplaced before and after this age exhibit both island arc basalts (IAB)-like trace element distribution patterns and enriched Sr-Nd isotope compositions. This difference indicates a geochemical mutation in the SCLM of North China at ~121 Ma. Although mafic magmatism also took place in the Late Triassic, it was related to exhumation of the deeply subducted South China continental crust because the subduction of Paleo-Pacific slab was not operated at that time. Paleo-Pacific slab started to subduct beneath the eastern margin of Eruasian continent since the Jurrasic. The subducting slab and its overlying SCLM wedge were coupled in the Jurassic, and slab dehydration resulted in hydration and weakening of the cratonic mantle. The mantle sources of ancient IAB-like mafic igneous rocks are a kind of ultramafic metasomatites that were generated by reaction of the cratonic mantle wedge peridotite not only with aqueous solutions derived from dehydration of the subducting Paleo-Pacific oceanic crust in the Jurassic but also with hydrous melts derived from partial melting of the subducting South China continental crust in the Triassic. On the other hand, the mantle sources of juvenile OIB-like mafic igneous rocks are also a kind of ultramafic metasomatites that were generated by reaction of the asthenospheric mantle underneath the North China lithosphere with hydrous felsic melts derived from partial melting of the subducting Paleo-Pacific oceanic crust. The subducting Paleo-Pacific slab became rollback at ~144 Ma. Afterwards the SCLM base was heated by laterally filled asthenospheric mantle, leading to thinning of the hydrated and weakened cratonic mantle. There was extensive bimodal magmatism at 130 to 120 Ma, marking intensive destruction of the cratonic lithosphere. Not only the ultramafic metasomatites in the lower part of the cratonic mantle wedge underwent partial melting to produce mafic igneous rocks showing negative ε_Nd(t) values, depletion in Nb and Ta but enrichment in Pb, but also the lower continent crust overlying the cratonic mantle wedge was heated for extensive felsic magmatism. At the same time, the rollback slab surface was heated by the laterally filled asthenospheric mantle, resulting in partial melting of the previously dehydrated rocks beyond rutile stability on the slab surface. This produce still hydrous felsic melts, which metasomatized the overlying asthenospheric mantle peridotite to generate the ultramafic metasomatites that show positive ε_Nd(t) values, no depletion or even enrichment in Nb and Ta but depletion in Pb. Partial melting of such metasomatites started at ~121 Ma, giving rise to the mafic igneous rocks with juvenile OIB-like geochemical signatures. In this context, the age of ~121 Ma may terminate replacement of the ancient SCLM by the juvenile SCLM in North China. Paleo-Pacific slab was not subducted to the mantle transition zone in the Mesozoic as revealed by modern seismic tomography, and it was subducted at a low angle since the Jurassic, like the subduction of Nazca Plate beneath American continent. This flat subduction would not only chemically metasomatize the cratonic mantle but also physically erode the cratonic mantle. Therefore, the interaction between Paleo-Pacific slab and the cratonic mantle is the first-order geodynamic mechanism for the thinning and destruction of cratonic lithosphere in North China.     

鄂尔多斯盆地深部热结构特征及其对华北克拉通破坏的启示

基于二维稳态热传导方程,利用有限元数值模拟方法,选取东西向横穿鄂尔多斯盆地地质与地球物理解释大剖面进行了深部温度场数值模拟研究,得到了华北克拉通西部的鄂尔多斯盆地下伏岩石圈热结构特征.地幔热流变化范围:21.2~24.5mW·m-2,体现为东高西低特征.壳幔热流比(Qc/Qm)介于1.51~1.84之间,为"热壳冷幔".与华北东部地幔热流对比表明,西部的鄂尔多斯盆地相对处于稳定的深部动力学环境.在岩石圈热结构研究基础上,对克拉通地震岩石圈与热岩石圈厚度差异进行了对比,研究表明:鄂尔多斯盆地西部地震岩石圈与热岩石圈厚度差异约达140km,而东部的汾渭地堑,渤海湾盆地二者差异逐渐减小.华北克拉通自西向东,地震岩石圈厚度与热岩石圈厚度差异不断减小,意味着华北克拉通岩石圈下部的软流圈地幔黏性系数自西向东逐渐降低,本文从地热学角度可能印证了太平洋俯冲脱水作用对华北克拉通的影响.     

Subduction history of the Paleo-Pacific slab beneath Eurasian continent: Mesozoic-Paleogene magmatic records in Northeast Asia

This paper presents a review on the rock associations, geochemistry, and spatial distribution of Mesozoic-Paleogene igneous rocks in Northeast Asia. The record of magmatism is used to evaluate the spatial-temporal extent and influence of multiple tectonic regimes during the Mesozoic, as well as the onset and history of Paleo-Pacific slab subduction beneath Eurasian continent. Mesozoic-Paleogene magmatism at the continental margin of Northeast Asia can be subdivided into nine stages that took place in the Early-Middle Triassic, Late Triassic, Early Jurassic, Middle Jurassic, Late Jurassic, early Early Cretaceous, late Early Cretaceous, Late Cretaceous, and Paleogene, respectively. The Triassic magmatism is mainly composed of adakitic rocks, bimodal rocks, alkaline igneous rocks, and A-type granites and rhyolites that formed in syn-collisional to post-collisional extensional settings related to the final closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean. However, Triassic calc-alkaline igneous rocks in the Erguna-Xing’an massifs were associated with the southward subduction of the Mongol-Okhotsk oceanic slab. A passive continental margin setting existed in Northeast Asia during the Triassic. Early Jurassic calc-alkaline igneous rocks have a geochemical affinity to arc-like magmatism, whereas coeval intracontinental magmatism is composed of bimodal igneous rocks and A-type granites. Spatial variations in the potassium contents of Early Jurassic igneous rocks from the continental margin to intracontinental region, together with the presence of an Early Jurassic accretionary complex, reveal that the onset of the Paleo- Pacific slab subduction beneath Eurasian continent occurred in the Early Jurassic. Middle Jurassic to early Early Cretaceous magmatism did not take place at the continental margin of Northeast Asia. This observation, combined with the occurrence of low-altitude biological assemblages and the age population of detrital zircons in an Early Cretaceous accretionary complex, indicates that a strike-slip tectonic regime existed between the continental margin and Paleo-Pacific slab during the Middle Jurassic to early Early Cretaceous. The widespread occurrence of late Early Cretaceous calc-alkaline igneous rocks, I-type granites, and adakitic rocks suggests low-angle subduction of the Paleo-Pacific slab beneath Eurasian continent at this time. The eastward narrowing of the distribution of igneous rocks from the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene, and the change from an intracontinental to continental margin setting, suggest the eastward movement of Eurasian continent and rollback of the Paleo- Pacific slab at this time.     

Pertrogenesis and tectonic implications of the late Jurassic basic rocks from the northern Shi‐Hang zone,Southeast China

The tectonic setting of the late mesozoic of South China is in a debate between two schools of thought: an intra‐continental rift zone along a passive continental margin or active rifting associated with subduction of the paleo‐Pacific Plate. In this study, we present new sensitive high‐resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) U‐Pb zircon ages, along with geochemical data of three basic dikes that cross‐cut the Dexing porphyry copper deposit. The deposit is the largest of its kind in eastern China and part of large scale mineralization associated with Mesozoic magmatic activity in the area. Our results indicate that the dikes were emplaced in the Late Jurassic with an average U‐Pb age of 153.5 ± 2.4 Ma. The intrusions have bulk ε_Nd(t) of ca +0.7 and zircon ε_Hf(t) value of +1.54 to +6.92. Based on relatively enriched light rare earth elements (LREE) and depleted high‐field‐strength elements (HFSE) abundances with pronounced negative Ta–Nb, Hf–Zr and Ti anomalies in multi‐element diagrams, we propose that these dikes were derived from a subduction‐modified lithospheric mantle source. The variability in Hf isotopes identifies some degree of crustal contaminations. Our data support a scenario with a back‐arc extensional setting or an intra‐arc rift environment associated with the westward subduction of the paleo‐Pacific Plate at or prior to the late Jurassic as the most likely cause for these subduction signatures.