Loads on Sprayed Waterproof Tunnel Linings in Jointed Hard Rock: A Study Based on Norwegian Cases

A composite tunnel lining system based on a sprayed waterproofing membrane combined with sprayed concrete is currently being considered for future Norwegian rail and road tunnels. Possible loading of the tunnel linings caused by water pressure is being investigated. This tunnel lining system consists of a waterproof membrane which, during application on the sprayed concrete lining, bonds mechanically to the sprayed concrete on either side. Hence, a continuous, sealing, and non-draining structure from the rock mass to the interior tunnel surface is formed in the walls and crown. Experiences from some successful recent projects with this lining system in Europe are reviewed. However, these experiences are not directly comparable to the Scandinavian hard rock tunnel lining approach, which utilizes a relatively thin sprayed and irregular concrete layer for permanent lining. When considering the sprayed membrane and sprayed concrete composite lining concept, introducing a partially sealing and undrained element in the lining, the experiences with the traditionally used lining systems in Norway need to be reconsidered and fully understood. A review of several hard rock tunnels with adverse conditions, in which the tunnel lining has been subject to load monitoring, shows that only very small loads in the tunnel linings occur. Recent investigations with in situ water pressure testing, including two sites with the composite sprayed membrane in a partially drained waterproof tunnel lining, are discussed. In a case with a cavern located in a hydraulically saturated rock mass subjected to approximately 8 bar hydrostatic pressure, a negative pressure gradient towards the tunnel lining has been measured. The investigation results from the Norwegian test sites indicate that no significant loading of the tunnel lining takes place in a hydraulically saturated rock when applying this composite waterproof tunnel lining in parts of the tunnel perimeter.     

Leaking behavior of shield tunnels under the Huangpu River of Shanghai with induced hazards

The Quaternary deposits in Shanghai primarily consists of a phreatic aquifer group (Aq0) and five artesian aquifers (AqI–AqV) that are separated by six aquitards (AdI–AdVI). In the basin of the Huangpu River, the first artesian aquifer (AqI) is connected to the second artesian aquifer (AqII), forming a 50-m-thick artesian aquifer with a very high groundwater level. The highway tunnels under the Huangpu River of Shanghai are constructed at a maximum depth up to 45 m, within the artesian aquifer. These tunnels are lined with precast reinforced concrete segments without a second lining. Under high water pressure, it is difficult for the single shell linings to achieve water tightness. Different degrees of groundwater leakage have been observed in road tunnels under the Huangpu River. The tunnels constructed before the 1990s have had very serious groundwater leakage (e.g., >1 L/m²/day), and the recently constructed tunnels have leaked less than 0.1 L/m²/day. The factors influencing groundwater leakage include depth below groundwater level, differential settlement of the tunnel, and applied waterproof technologies. The increase in depth leads to a significant increase in groundwater leakage. The differential settlement causes gaps to open and offset between segments, as well as cracking of segments, which can also induce groundwater leakage. According to the analysis of recorded data, the number of leaking points tends to increase with the curvature of the settlement curve. In addition, inappropriate waterproofing materials and poor waterproofing design will also lead to groundwater leakage. Groundwater leakage causes deterioration of the structure, aging of the installations in the tunnels (e.g., facilities and pavements), as well as discomfort for users of the tunnels and adverse environmental impacts. Furthermore, groundwater leakage also causes structural deformation of the tunnel itself, leading to further leakage and hazards.     

Moisture Transport Through Sprayed Concrete Tunnel Linings

Waterproofing of permanent sprayed concrete tunnel linings with sprayed membranes in a continuous sandwich structure has been attempted since 2000 and has seen increased use in some countries. The main function of a sprayed membrane from a waterproofing perspective is to provide crack bridging and hence prevent flow of liquid water into the tunnel through cracks and imperfections in the concrete material. However, moisture can migrate through the concrete and EVA-based membrane materials by capillary and vapor diffusion mechanisms. These moisture transport mechanisms can have an influence on the degree of saturation, and may influence the pore pressures in the concrete material as well as risk of freeze–thaw damage of the concrete and membrane. The paper describes a detailed study of moisture transport material parameters, moisture condition in tunnel linings and climatic conditions tunnels in hard rock in Norway. These data have been included in a hygrothermal simulation model in the software WUFI for moisture transport to substantiate moisture transport and long-term effects on saturation of the concrete and membrane material. The findings suggest that EVA-based membranes exhibit significant water absorption and vapor transport properties although they are impermeable to liquid water flow. State-of-the-art sprayed concrete material applied with the wet mix method exhibits very low hydraulic conductivities, lower than 10^?14 m/s, thus saturated conductive water flow is a very unlikely dominant transport mechanism. Moisture transport through the lining structure by capillary flow and vapor diffusion are calculated to approximately 3 cm³/m² per day for lining thicknesses in the range of 25–35 cm and seasonal Nordic climate variations. The calculated moisture contents in the tunnel linings from the hygrothermal simulations are largely in agreement with the measured moisture contents in the tunnel linings. The findings also indicate that the concrete material exhibits a reduction of saturation on the immediate inside of the membrane. Near the location of the waterproofing membrane on either side, the concrete material exhibits degrees of capillary saturation between 85 and 95 %. Moisture content in the membrane is found to be consistently in the range of 12–17 % by weight, corresponding to a degree of saturation of 30–35 %. Possible effects of such moisture contents are lower risk of freezing degradation, higher tensile bonding strengths at the membrane interfaces, and a reduced risk of pore pressure in the concrete material.     

叠落盾构隧道受力分析及管片配筋

在现代城市轨道交通建设中,上下叠落地铁盾构隧道越来越多,这类叠落盾构隧道相互影响,塌落拱多次叠加,传统解析法计算隧道围岩压力存在困难,目前缺乏相应的叠落隧道围岩应力计算方法。为了研究叠落盾构隧道受力分析及管片配筋,以北京地铁6号线南锣鼓巷站—东四站叠落盾构隧道为工程实例,根据弹塑性理论模拟隧道开挖过程计算塌落拱多次叠加,结合强度折减法计算叠落隧道塑性区,然后根据塑性区计算塌落拱高度和围岩压力;根据厚壁圆筒理论,计算盾构施工和列车运营对下方隧道附加应力;根据以上分析,计算叠落隧道的下方盾构隧道管片内力并配筋。     

盾构隧道地震响应分析方法及工程应用

盾构隧道在地震作用下可发生接头螺栓剪断、管片开裂、管片端部混凝土脱落、大变形及错台等震害,将影响隧道的安全与正常使用,因此,建立合理的分析模型与计算方法来研究隧道可能的震害具有重要的工程防震减灾意义。采用嵌入梁单元模拟接头,厚壳单元模拟管片,无限元作为动力人工边界,同时在管片之间及管片与地层间设置非连续接触关系,更好地模拟了管片厚度方向应力及管片与地层间的相互作用,建立了厚壳-接触-无限元地震响应分析模型。并将该模型运用于某大直径越江盾构隧道的抗震分析中,计算结果与盾构隧道震害特征较为吻合,表明该模型可反映盾构隧道的真实地震动响应。并应用该模型分析了壁后注浆层材料参数及结构与土体相互作用对管片动力响应的影响。所建模型对于研究盾构或TBM施工隧道的震害分析具有很好的推广价值。     

黄土软岩公路隧道防排水合理结构型式研究

针对甘肃省及临近地区干旱、半干旱黄土地区工程地质、水文地质特点,实地调查该地区已建隧道渗漏水情况,分析该地区隧道渗漏水成因。以天巉二级汽车专用公路9座隧道为依托,应用工程类比法提出适合该地区的涌水类型划分方法,涌水类型划分为滴渗、淋淌、股水和突水4种,并分析了影响隧道防排水结构设计的因素和防排水设计原则。在此基础上,提出了防排水设计的4种合理结构型式及其适用条件。研究结果为天巉公路、巉柳公路防排水设计与施工提供了有效指导。     

淋水碎裂顶板煤巷锚固试验研究与实践

煤巷顶板锚固区域富水岩层支护中出现的沿锚杆（索）钻孔持续渗、淋、涌水难题是工程中亟待解决的问题。采用一种新型锚杆（索）防水锚固剂进行了相关防水性配比试验研究;为了获得煤系碎裂顶板持续渗水作用下粉砂岩强度变化规律,在现场与实验室分别进行渗水试验。结果表明：NS-1不饱和聚酯树脂及添加2%的XS-1高分子速溶胶粉是防水型锚固剂关键点;在静水浸泡作用下,粉砂岩抗压强度呈现先缓慢增大而后快速衰减的变化规律;在动水渗流、循环风干作用下粉砂岩在36～42 h内裂隙开度增加,强度持续弱化。研究了粉砂岩顶板水与支护体耦合作用关系,在团柏煤矿101101巷道进行新型锚固剂锚杆（索）锚固试验,防水型锚固剂在钻孔渗流量为140 mL/s时,仍能达到208 kN的锚固效果;试验结果表明,对锚杆、锚索施加高预应力和采用防水锚固剂可保证顶板淋水碎裂煤巷的稳定。     

Analysis of potential cave-in from fault zones in hard rock subsea tunnels

Summary As a part of a research program on the rock engineering aspects of hard rock subsea tunnelling, analyses of potential cave-in from fault zones have been carried out at the Norwegian Institute of Technology. This is a topic of great importance for the planning of future subsea tunnels, and particularly for the selection of the minimum rock cover of such projects. The paper is divided into three main parts: a) review of cases of instability in Norwegian subsea tunnels, b) evaluation of theoretical maximum sliding, and c) discussion of cases of cave-in in tunnels under land. In theory, a cave-in during subsea tunnelling may propagate far higher than the normal minimum rock cover. Taking into consideration the comprehensive geo-investigations that are always carried out for subsea tunnel projects today, it would, however, be unrealistic to base the dimensioning of rock cover for future projects on worst-case scenarios. Consequently, the main result of this study is to emphasize the importance of comprehensive geo-investigations, detailed tunnel mapping, a high degree of readiness during tunnelling and a thorough quality control.     

Stability of a circular tunnel in cohesive-frictional soil subjected to surcharge loading

The stability of circular tunnels in cohesive-frictional soils subjected to surcharge loading has been investigated theoretically and numerically assuming plane strain conditions. Despite the importance of this problem, previous research on the subject is very limited. At present, no generally accepted design or analysis method is available to evaluate the stability of tunnels/openings in cohesive-frictional soils. In this study, continuous loading is applied to the ground surface, and both smooth and rough interface conditions are modelled. For a series of tunnel diameter-to-depth ratios and material properties, rigorous lower- and upper-bound solutions for the ultimate surcharge loading are obtained by applying finite element limit analysis techniques. For practical use, the results are presented in the form of dimensionless stability charts with the actual tunnel stability numbers being closely bracketed from above and below. As an additional check on the solutions, upper-bound rigid-block mechanisms have been developed and the predicted collapse loads from these are compared with those from finite element limit analysis. Finally, an expression that approximates the ultimate surcharge load has been devised which is convenient for use by practising engineers.     

Risk assessment of water inrush in karst tunnels based on two-class fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method

A feasible and accurate method named two-class fuzzy comprehensive evaluation is put forward to assess the risk of water inrush in karst tunnels. In view of regarding tunnel face as the evaluation object, 12 influencing factors of water inrush are selected as the evaluation index system consisting of 4 first-class and 12 second-class indices. Based on fuzzy mathematics theory and expert evaluation method, all the indices are quantitatively graded according to five risk grades. The weights of indices affecting water inrush are rationally distributed by using analytic hierarchy process. Membership functions and weights of indices are utilized to stepwise compute the membership degree of indices corresponding to risk grade, and the principle of maximum membership degree is carried out to discern the risk grade of water inrush. The tunnel faces in seven segments of Qiyueshan tunnel are chosen as the case studies. Evaluation results are derived from the proposed method, and they are generally consistent with the actual results through comparisons. This method provides a cogent way for evaluating the risk of water inrush in karst tunnels.     

Radiocarbon dating of marine shells, including a discussion of apparent age of Recent shells from Norway

General problems in determining and interpreting shell C¹⁴ dates are discussed: calculation methods, factors influencing primary activity (apparent age), and determination of contamination. It is concluded that shell dates are reliable when handled carefully. Measurements on ten shells, collected between 1898 and 1923 on the Norwegian coast, gave apparent ages from 340±75 to 550±80 years, indicating that apparent age is not a significant problem in dating of Norwegian shells.     

含气地层中气体释放对盾构隧道稳定性影响研究

随着地下工程的建设日益增多,部分工程穿越含气地层,含气地层会对隧道的施工产生一定不良的影响。盾构在沼气地层掘进过程中,由于管片气密性不良造成沼气通过管片环缝进入隧道,引起管片的纵向变形。针对这一现象,建立管片环缝单点气体释放条件下的管片变形模型,并用数值模拟方法与理论结果进行对比验证。通过其变形公式,分析不同含气层厚度、不同初始气压条件对管片的变形及管片接缝张开量的影响,探讨管片损坏的地层条件。结果表明,对于含气层较薄（＜1.5 m）、气体压力比较小（＜150 kPa）的地层,隧道气密性不严导致气体泄漏进入隧道会导致管片下沉,但一般不会破坏管片的防水设施。当含气层厚度大或气体压力较大时,气体释放会引起比较大的管片变形,破坏管片的防水能力,导致地下水进入隧道,引起管片的进一步变形;地层扰动大时,地层土体随地下水进入隧道,会造成管片的严重损坏,以至于断裂。     

Vibratory Influential Zoning for Grade-Separated Tunnels Under the Load of Trains

Grade-separated tunnels are even more vulnerable components in high-speed railway engineering structures. The dynamic characteristics of tunnels under a train load are key indicators that influence the safe operation and durability of the entire line. In this study, with consideration of the major factors influencing grade-separated tunnels for high-speed rails, such as train speed, traffic mode, surrounding rock type, between-tunnel height, and crossing angle, a parameterized finite element model is established based on an orthogonal experimental design. In the proposed model, tensile stress (under which any vibration-induced structural damage is caused) is defined as a main evaluation index, and thus the empirical formula for each influencing factor is obtained. When the index was determined under multiple factors and at different levels, rock height between tunnels is found to be the biggest factor influencing the response of grade-separated tunnels to the vibratory load of the trains, followed by train speed, surrounding rock level, and crossing angle. Finally, based on the relevant standards for concrete stress, the zoning of grade-separated tunnels under the vibratory load of trains is established by multiple factors. Such zoning provides important theoretical references for future structural design, maintenance, and reinforcement of grade-separated tunnels for high-speed rails.     

Controlled Blasting for Removal of Concrete Plugs in Draft Tube Tunnels at Sardar Sarovar Project

During construction of the Sardar Sarovar (Narmada) Hydro Electric Project in India, an unprecedented flood entered the power house cavern through draft tube tunnels and caused damage to underground structures. After this incident, these draft tubes were plugged with concrete/reinforced concrete to prevent future flooding. After heavy gates were erected at the exit end of the draft tube tunnels, these plugs had to be removed by drilling and blasting without causing any damage to the concrete lining and the ribs erected in the tunnels. Controlled blasting was designed and executed successfully for removal of the plugs in the same manner as for tunnel blasting. This paper describes the details of concrete plugs, details of drilling and blasting adopted, and some interesting observations in respect of drilling and blasting in the concrete plugs. A seismic method based on the measurement of P-wave velocity in the concrete lining before and after blasting was used to quantify the changes (damage) to concrete lining.     

隧道地下水处治的设计理论及方法研究

隧道施工地下水的处治问题一直困扰着隧道工程界,对地下水作用的认识仍未达成共识,为此需要从概念上和方法上对本问题进行深入研究。本文在国内外研究现状分析基础上,开展了隧道施工对地下水渗流变化的影响分析、隧道水压力物理模型试验研究、隧道衬砌水荷载及其相关问题的数值分析,提出针对不同防排水模式的水荷载计算模式、隧道地下水处治的理念和方式。主要创新点如下:明确提出高水压的概念,建立隧道衬砌水压力计算的概念模型,提出针对隧道不同埋深段及地下水发育状况采取不同处理策略的隧道防排水原则,研究成果为高压富水隧道设计提供了理论依据。     

An engineering geological appraisal of the sandstones of the Clarens Formation,Lesotho, in relation to tunnelling

Summary The Delivery Tunnel South forms part of a system of tunnels for conveying water from Lesotho to South Africa. The tunnel was excavated primarily by tunnel boring machine in the sandstones of the Clarens Formation. These sandstones are uniformly graded and fine grained with quartz being the most abundant mineral. They are mostly of aeolian origin. Their unconfined compressive strength varies appreciably, from moderately strong to extremely strong. The boreability of the sandstones was investigated by the Norwegian Institute of Technology tests and the total hardness. These tests showed that these sandstones would be relatively easy to bore, although moderately abrasive. The prediction proved correct. In fact, excavation of the tunnel was completed 20 months ahead of schedule, the rock conditions being better than expected. The long-term durability of these sandstones was investigated to establish criteria for concrete lining of the tunnel. A series of tests were undertaken to evaluate the durability. These included a number of soaking tests using different fluid media, wet and dry testing, erosion tests and brushing tests. This testing programme suggested that concrete lining of the intact sandstone was probably only required where the strength of the sandstone was less than 20 MPa and that therefore only a small percentage of the tunnel need be lined.     

Comparative analysis of continuous radon sensors in underground environments

Four different continuous radon (²²²Rn)-detection systems have been compared in underground environments, namely three subhorizontal tunnels excavated for groundwater exploitation. Within observational uncertainties, all sensors detected the same concentrations of radon in the air of the tunnels, regardless of the methodology used to measure this radioactive gas. In this sense, the choice of continuous long-term radon monitoring sensors in underground tunnels is constrained by factors such as robustness of the instrumentation, power supply and cost, rather than the sensitivity of the detection methodology. This is particularly important for the monitoring of radon in the context of seismo-volcanic surveillance, where the harsh environmental conditions of the monitoring sites and the absence of electrical power supply are key factors to take into account.     

静压沉桩引起邻近隧道水平位移计算方法研究

静压沉桩过程中会产生强烈的挤土效应,使得桩周土及邻近的地下电缆隧道产生扰动变形,如果变形过大,可能破坏隧道的防水结构,造成隧道渗漏水,严重影响隧道的正常使用及安全。在圆柱孔扩张理论及基床系数法的基础上,研究了饱和软土地区静压沉桩作用下周边地层及邻近既有电缆隧道应力及水平位移的理论计算方法;考虑群桩效应,推导了单排群桩施工造成邻近既有电缆隧道水平位移的理论计算方法,并研究了群桩效应影响系数的取值范围;最后,开展了实际工程的理论计算和数值模拟。研究结果表明：提出的方法可方便计算出单桩及单排群桩施工造成的邻近既有电缆隧道的水平位移,计算结果与数值模拟结果吻合性良好。研究可为有邻近桩基施工时电缆隧道的扰动预测及保护提供参考。     

Applicability of fiber reinforced self-compacting concrete for tunnel lining

Nowadays, self-compacting concrete is used in reinforced concrete structure with heavy bars. This type of concrete is widely accepted throughout the world; therefore, it can be used as an attractive solution for inner lining of tunnels. Regarding the effect of fibers in improving the concrete properties the effect of using polypropylene fiber on the behavior of arch specimens are investigated in laboratory. Therefore, specimens with dimensions of 1 m diameter, 0.5 m width, and 10 cm thickness with various reinforcing bars in arch forms were prepared and their flexural strength was investigated. The results show high ability of self-compacting concrete for the inner coverage of tunnels and its increasing strength is due to use of fibers. In addition, the results indicate that by adding fibers in the amount of 0.1 % of cement weight and reinforcing bars of size number 10, the required flexural strength would be obtained.