不同尺度岩体结构面对页岩气储层水力压裂裂缝扩展的影响

储层岩体中的天然结构面对水力压裂缝网改造具有重要的影响。本文采用真实破裂过程分析软件RFPA2D-Flow,在考虑岩体非均质性和岩体渗流-应力-损伤破裂特性的基础上,对不同尺度天然结构面影响的水力压裂裂缝扩展与演化行为进行了模拟分析和讨论,研究结果表明:（1）当水力裂缝遇天然非闭合裂隙时,在水力裂缝靠近非闭合裂隙区间形成拉张应力区,水力裂缝与区间非闭合裂隙间微元体累进性张拉破坏是导致水力裂缝与非闭合裂隙贯通的主要机制;（2）层理等优势结构对水力压裂裂缝扩展及缝网形态影响十分显著,当最大主应力方向与层理面走向小角度相交时,层理结构面对水力裂隙的扩展起主要作用,当最大主应力方向与层理面走向大角度相交时,最大主压应力与层理面共同对缝网扩展起主导作用,随着优势结构面的增多和差应力的增大,水力压裂形成的缝网范围和复杂性程度随之增大;（3）储层水力压裂是一种局部范围内的短暂动力扰动过程,尽管断层的存在可以极大地影响水力裂缝的扩展模式,增大水力裂隙扩展高度,但相比于储层埋深,水力压裂对断层封闭性的破坏范围和断层活动性的扰动程度十分有限。     

孔隙水压力对岩石裂纹扩展影响的数值模拟

应用岩石破坏过程渗流-应力-损伤(FSD)耦合分析软件F-RFPA2D,通过对孔隙水压作用下岩石试件加载破坏过程的数值模拟,对孔隙水压力大小和梯度对岩石试样中裂纹的萌生和扩展进行了数值模拟研究。模拟结果再现了孔隙水压力作用下裂纹萌生扩展的全过程,表明孔隙水压力大小和梯度对岩石中裂纹的萌生和扩展模式都有很大的影响。     

Prediction and analysis of the stimulated reservoir volume for shale gas reservoirs based on rock failure mechanism

The ultra-low-permeability shale gas reservoir has a lot of well-developed natural fractures. It has been proven that hydraulic fracture growth pattern is usually a complex network fracture rather than conventional single planar fractures by micro-seismic monitoring, which can be explained as the shear and tensile failure of natural fractures or creation of new cracks due to the increase in reservoir pore pressure caused by fluid injection during the process of hydraulic fracturing. In order to simulate the network fracture growth, a mathematical model was established based on full tensor permeability, continuum method and fluid mass conservation equation. Firstly, the governing equation of fluid diffusivity based on permeability tensor was solved to obtain the reservoir pressure distribution. Then Mohr–Coulomb shear failure criterion and tensile failure criterion were used to decide whether the rock failed or not in any block on the basis of the calculated reservoir pressure. The grid-block permeability was modified according to the change of fracture aperture once any type of rock failure criterion was met within a grid block. Finally, the stimulated reservoir volume (SRV) zone was represented by an enhancement permeability zone. After calibrating the numerical solution of the model with the field micro-seismic information, a sensitivity study was performed to analyze the effects of some factors including initial reservoir pressure, injection fluid volume, natural fracture azimuth angle and horizontal stress difference on the SRV (shape, size, bandwidth and length). The results show that the SRV size increases with the increasing initial pore reservoir and injection fluid volume, but decreases with the increase in the horizontal principal stress difference and natural fracture azimuth angle. The SRV shape is always similar for different initial pore reservoir and injection fluid volume. The SRV is observed to become shorter in length and wider in bandwidth with the decrease in natural fracture azimuth angle and horizontal principal stress difference.     

储层非均质性对水力压裂的影响

从岩石细观非均质性的特点出发,采用RFPA2D-Flow软件对单孔和双孔数值模型进行压裂计算,研究岩石非均质性对水力压裂的响应,重点探讨双孔模型孔间吸引效应对裂纹演化形态的影响。岩石细观单元的力学、水力学特性由统计分布生成以体现岩石的随机不均质性,水力压裂过程中流体压力传递通过单元渗流-损伤耦合迭代来实现。数值计算结果表明:(1)岩石非均质性影响裂缝的扩展形态,导致水力裂纹尖端微裂纹的分支。随着均质度的增加,水力裂纹的扩展形态变得更加平直光滑,单孔模型两侧裂纹更加对称,双孔间裂纹的连通性变差。(2)岩石的非均匀性对于岩石的起裂压力和地层破裂压力影响较大。随着均质度的增大,起裂应力和地层破裂应力增大,并且两者间的差值逐渐变小,在储层为均质的条件下,两者几乎相等。(3)相同的边界条件下,均质模型的应力分布曲线光滑连续,非均质模型的应力分布曲线呈现出明显波动,井眼对称剖面上的应力分布不尽相同,反映了细观单元强度非均匀性及裂缝扩展形态对应力分布的影响。(4)双孔模型孔间存在孔隙水压力增加带,孔间产生吸引效应,双孔方位影响临界压力。研究结果对水压裂试验设计和现场压裂施工具有一定的参考意义。     

多级循环泵注水力压裂模拟实验研究

超深储层地层起裂压力较高,水力压裂受现场泵注设备的限制严重,文中重点研究了大尺度水力压裂物模实验水泥样品尺寸（762 mm×762 mm×914 mm）在循环和常规两种泵注条件下的起裂扩展和声发射规律。实验结果显示,（1）相对于普通泵注,采用循环泵注方式进行水力压裂可以有效降低起裂压力,类似于单轴和三轴循环加载岩石力学行为,都是由于循环加载引起疲劳损伤;（2）对于螺旋射孔完井方式,水力压裂裂缝只从最薄弱射孔处起裂,一旦起裂后其他射孔孔眼很难再开启,水力压裂现场应合理选择分段距离和簇间距,实现储层改造效率最优化;（3）循环泵注水力压裂存在Kaiser效应（当加载应力到前次加载最高应力值时出现的声发射信息）。因孔隙流体扩散到岩石并导致孔隙压力的局部上升,破坏模式仍然可以由摩尔圆表示。研究成果对循环泵注条件的裂缝扩展规律研究以及发展新型压裂改造技术具有重要意义。     

热应力影响下干热岩水压致裂数值模拟

干热岩水压致裂过程中低温诱导热应力与注入水压共同影响裂缝的萌生与扩展。首先通过THM耦合分析了低温压裂液注入过程中注入水压与热应力的相互作用及其对裂缝萌生的影响,随后建立描述岩石细观结构的THMD耦合模型对热应力影响下高温岩石水压致裂过程进行初探。结果表明：低温压裂液注入高温岩石产生的热应力包括岩石自身温度梯度形成的热应力与岩石颗粒非均匀膨胀导致的热应力,并在井筒周围呈现为拉应力。高注入压力将抑制热应力导致的多裂缝萌生,井筒附近热应力的存在对注入压力也具有削弱作用。基岩温度升高,裂缝萌生阶段更多裂缝在井筒附近起裂,缝网沿最大地应力方向的扩展速度减慢,但改造规模增加,同时多裂缝的存在也使得裂缝延伸压力增加。     

基于水压致裂法的岩石抗拉强度研究

为了揭示水压致裂法和巴西劈裂法测量岩石抗拉强度的关系,开展了理论和现场试验研究。基于经典的水压致裂法理论,推导了不同围压下钻孔破裂压力和抗拉强度。利用断裂力学理论建立了水压致裂法和巴西劈裂法测得抗拉强度的关系。利用预制切槽方法模拟天然裂纹,对水力裂缝的起裂压力进行了研究。结果表明：围压为最大主应力等于3倍最小主应力测得的抗拉强度大于围压为0测得的抗拉强度;水压致裂法和巴西劈裂法测量抗拉强度关系与应力场、裂纹长度、断裂韧度3个变量有关;通过在晋城矿区王台铺矿的预制切槽试验,运用断裂力学建立的抗拉强度计算式更为符合现场实际。研究结果可为坚硬难垮落顶板预制切槽的水力压裂设计提供参考。     

青海共和盆地干热岩地热储层水力压裂物理模拟和裂缝起裂与扩展形态研究

水力压裂是青海共和盆地干热岩地热资源开发的难点技术问题之一。本文基于升级改造的大尺寸真三轴水力压裂物理模拟实验系统模拟干热岩储层高温高压环境,利用青海共和盆地露头岩心进行水力压裂物理模拟实验,揭示干热岩储层水力裂缝的起裂和扩展规律。通过物理模拟实验发现：干热岩储层裂缝起裂可以通过文中提出的起裂模型判断起裂方式和预测起裂压力;水力裂缝在岩石基质中的扩展形态简单,仅沿最大主应力方向延伸;但是水力裂缝会受到岩石中弱面的影响,发生转向沿弱面延伸,形成较复杂的裂缝形态。因此,建议在干热岩储层实际施工中,在天然裂缝发育较丰富的层段开展水力压裂,以实现复杂裂缝网络提取地热能。     

电爆冲击波对储层致裂效果影响因素的数值模拟研究

电爆冲击波在油气储层增渗解堵中具有巨大应用潜力,为了解各因素对电爆冲击波致裂效果的影响程度,本文采用ANSYS/LS[CD*2]DYNA软件,通过改变地应力、弹性模量、抗拉强度参数进行数值模拟。结果显示,地应力对致裂效果具有强烈的抑制作用,在双向等压地应力作用下,裂纹区形状为圆形,并且随着地应力的增大,岩体破裂度、破裂半径均逐渐减小。在双向不等压地应力作用下,随水平主应力差值增大,裂纹扩展方向由圆形逐渐转变为椭圆形,具有沿最大水平主应力方向扩展的特点;弹性模量对致裂效果具有重要影响,随着弹性模量的增大,岩体破裂度、破裂半径均呈增大趋势;随抗拉强度增大,岩体破裂度、破裂半径均减小。     

Analysis of refracturing in horizontal wells: Insights from the poroelastic displacement discontinuity method

In this paper, a fully coupled 2‐dimensional poroelastic displacement discontinuity method is used to investigate the refracturing process in horizontal wells. One of the objectives of refracturing is to access new reserves by adding new hydraulic fractures in zones that were bypassed in the initial fracturing attempt. Pore pressure depletion in the vicinity of old fractures directly affects the state of stress and eventually the propagation of newly created hydraulic fractures. Thus, a poroelastic analysis is required to identify guidelines for the refracturing process, in particular to understand the extension of the pore pressure depletion, and eventually, the orientation of new as well as old fractures. We propose a fully coupled approach to model the whole process of child fracture propagation in a depleted area between 2 parent fractures in the same wellbore. This approach omits the need of using multistep workflow that is regularly used to model the process. The maximum tensile stress criterion (σ criterion) is used for hydraulic fracture propagation. The proposed method is verified using available analytical solutions for total stress and pore pressure loading modes on a line fracture in drained and undrained conditions. Then, test cases of multifractured horizontal wells are studied to calculate the time evolution of the stress and pore pressure fields around old fractures and to understand the effect of these fields on the propagation path of newly created fractures. Finally, the effect of the pore pressure depletion on the propagation path of the newly created fractures in the bypassed area of the same wellbore is studied. The results show that the depleted areas around old fractures are highly affected by the extent and severity of the stress redistribution and pore pressure depletion. It is observed that a successful creation of new fractures may only happen in certain time frames. The results of this study provide new insights on the behavior of newly created fractures in depleted zones. They also clarify the relationship between stress change and pore pressure depletion in horizontal wells.     

A coupled hydro-mechanical analysis for prediction of hydraulic fracture propagation in saturated porous media using EFG mesh-less method

The details of the Element Free Galerkin (EFG) method are presented with the method being applied to a study on hydraulic fracturing initiation and propagation process in a saturated porous medium using coupled hydro-mechanical numerical modelling. In this EFG method, interpolation (approximation) is based on nodes without using elements and hence an arbitrary discrete fracture path can be modelled.The numerical approach is based upon solving two governing partial differential equations of equilibrium and continuity of pore water simultaneously. Displacement increment and pore water pressure increment are discretized using the same EFG shape functions. An incremental constrained Galerkin weak form is used to create the discrete system of equations and a fully implicit scheme is used for discretization in the time domain. Implementation of essential boundary conditions is based on the penalty method. In order to model discrete fractures, the so-called diffraction method is used.Examples are presented and the results are compared to some closed-form solutions and FEM approximations in order to demonstrate the validity of the developed model and its capabilities. The model is able to take the anisotropy and inhomogeneity of the material into account. The applicability of the model is examined by simulating hydraulic fracture initiation and propagation process from a borehole by injection of fluid. The maximum tensile strength criterion and Mohr–Coulomb shear criterion are used for modelling tensile and shear fracture, respectively. The model successfully simulates the leak-off of fluid from the fracture into the surrounding material. The results indicate the importance of pore fluid pressure in the initiation and propagation pattern of fracture in saturated soils.     

水力裂缝在煤岩界面处穿层扩展规律的数值模拟

为研究水力压裂裂缝在煤层与顶板界面处的穿层扩展规律，在分析煤岩界面性质的基础上，应用有限元法研究煤岩界面处裂缝从顶板起裂后的延伸情况，探讨了相关地质参数和施工参数对裂缝跨界面穿层扩展的影响。结果表明:地质因素中的地应力、煤岩界面强度为煤岩界面处裂缝能否穿层扩展的主要影响因素，垂向应力差异系数越大、界面抗剪切强度越大，越有利于裂缝穿层扩展沟通煤层；煤层与顶板间的弹性模量差异、抗拉强度差异是裂缝从顶板穿层进入煤层的有利因素；现场压裂施工应根据地层情况选择合适的施工参数（排量、注入点与界面的距离）以促进裂缝穿层扩展。研究成果能够为煤层顶板分段压裂水平井地面煤层气高效抽采技术的应用提供参考。      

Onset of Hydraulic Fracture Initiation Monitored by Acoustic Emission and Volumetric Deformation Measurements

In this paper, the results of laboratory studies of fracture initiation, early propagation and breakdown are reported. Three experiments were conducted on a low permeability sandstone block, loaded in a polyaxial test frame, to representative effective in situ stress conditions. The blocks were instrumented with acoustic emission (AE) and volumetric deformation sensors. In two experiments, fluids of different viscosity were injected into the wellbore, fluid injection was interrupted soon after the breakdown pressure had been reached. This allowed us to investigate hydraulic fracture initiation. In the third test, fracture initiation criteria were applied to stop hydraulic fracture propagation significantly earlier, prior to breakdown, and as it propagated a short distance from the wellbore. The analysis of AE results shows an increase in AE activity and a change in the AE spatial correlation, during the fracture initiation. This early stage of fracturing correlates strongly with the onset of rock volumetric deformation, and is confirmed by the analysis of ultrasonic transmission monitoring. The rock microstructure, after the test, was investigated by analysis of scanning electron microscope images. These indicated the development of leak-off zone near the wellbore and a dry hydraulic fracture at the farther distance from the wellbore.     

含有硬包裹体分布的非均质岩石水力压裂特性研究

基于完全流-固耦合的弹塑性理论给出了水力压裂数值计算的弥散裂缝模型,其中材料的弹性部分采用线弹性本构关系,塑性部分采用摩尔-库仑破坏准则及强化准则。依据当前的有效应力状态修正渗透系数来模拟压裂液在裂缝中的流动。渗透系数的修改使用双曲正切函数,并采用平均有效应力作为水力裂缝的起裂判据。在ABAQUS软件中通过用户自定义程序添加了该模型。根据岩石的切面照片建立了含有硬包裹体分布的非均质岩石的有限元计算模型,模拟了中心点注水条件下的水力压裂传播过程,讨论了在常应力状态下非均质岩石中开裂区域、典型位置的应力路径变化和裂缝传播范围随时间变化的特点。进行了多种条件下含有硬包裹体分布的岩石材料的数值试验,得出了基岩材料的弹性模量、凝聚力和渗透系数以及注水速率对峰值注水压力、平均注水压力和裂缝开度的影响规律。     

基于连续-非连续方法的裂隙破坏与相互作用研究

岩体内裂隙等非连续结构面对岩体的强度及变形等力学特性有着显著的影响,研究岩体裂隙起裂、扩展、相互作用和贯通机制,对工程岩体力学行为的表征和工程性能的评价十分重要。本文基于连续介质力学模型的离散元方法,通过考虑裂隙分布、模型加载条件及其与裂隙产状的关系,建立了一系列裂隙力学计算模型,研究了不同模型裂隙扩展演化特征和岩体破裂机制,分析了岩体裂隙扩展规律及其对岩体破坏路径和强度的影响,研究结果表明:（1）裂隙岩体模型加载条件下的破坏起裂点、最终贯通破坏特征及损伤分布受控于裂隙的产状及其与最大主压应力取向角度大小及围压大小。（2）裂隙弱面走向与最大主压应力取向斜交时,裂隙弱面在加载条件下其端部裂隙扩展、贯通破坏表现比较明显,反之,当裂隙弱面走向与最大主压应力取向一致时,裂隙弱面被动影响裂隙模型内新生裂隙的萌生、扩展和贯通模式,自身未出现新的扩展破坏。（3）裂隙数目的增多和围压的增大会显著增加模型内部剪切裂缝的数量和模型破坏后的破碎程度,模型内部的损伤区域主要围绕破裂面呈滑移线型交叉分布,非破裂面区域损伤呈条带状X型分布。（4）裂隙弱面走向与最大主压应力取向斜交时,裂隙对岩体模型强度的弱化程度高于裂隙弱面走向与最大主压应力取向一致的情况,而裂隙模型破坏后的残余强度则正好相反。     

Numerical Simulation of 3D Hydraulic Fracturing Based on an Improved Flow-Stress-Damage Model and a Parallel FEM Technique

The failure mechanism of hydraulic fractures in heterogeneous geological materials is an important topic in mining and petroleum engineering. A three-dimensional (3D) finite element model that considers the coupled effects of seepage, damage, and the stress field is introduced. This model is based on a previously developed two-dimensional (2D) version of the model (RFPA2D-Rock Failure Process Analysis). The RFPA3D-Parallel model is developed using a parallel finite element method with a message-passing interface library. The constitutive law of this model considers strength and stiffness degradation, stress-dependent permeability for the pre-peak stage, and deformation-dependent permeability for the post-peak stage. Using this model, 3D modelling of progressive failure and associated fluid flow in rock are conducted and used to investigate the hydro-mechanical response of rock samples at laboratory scale. The responses investigated are the axial stress–axial strain together with permeability evolution and fracture patterns at various stages of loading. Then, the hydraulic fracturing process inside a rock specimen is numerically simulated. Three coupled processes are considered: (1) mechanical deformation of the solid medium induced by the fluid pressure acting on the fracture surfaces and the rock skeleton, (2) fluid flow within the fracture, and (3) propagation of the fracture. The numerically simulated results show that the fractures from a vertical wellbore propagate in the maximum principal stress direction without branching, turning, and twisting in the case of a large difference in the magnitude of the far-field stresses. Otherwise, the fracture initiates in a non-preferred direction and plane then turns and twists during propagation to become aligned with the preferred direction and plane. This pattern of fracturing is common when the rock formation contains multiple layers with different material properties. In addition, local heterogeneity of the rock matrix and macro-scale stress fluctuations due to the variability of material properties can cause the branching, turning, and twisting of fractures.     

Linear Elastic and Cohesive Fracture Analysis to Model Hydraulic Fracture in Brittle and Ductile Rocks

Hydraulic fracturing technology is being widely used within the oil and gas industry for both waste injection and unconventional gas production wells. It is essential to predict the behavior of hydraulic fractures accurately based on understanding the fundamental mechanism(s). The prevailing approach for hydraulic fracture modeling continues to rely on computational methods based on Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM). Generally, these methods give reasonable predictions for hard rock hydraulic fracture processes, but still have inherent limitations, especially when fluid injection is performed in soft rock/sand or other non-conventional formations. These methods typically give very conservative predictions on fracture geometry and inaccurate estimation of required fracture pressure. One of the reasons the LEFM-based methods fail to give accurate predictions for these materials is that the fracture process zone ahead of the crack tip and softening effect should not be neglected in ductile rock fracture analysis. A 3D pore pressure cohesive zone model has been developed and applied to predict hydraulic fracturing under fluid injection. The cohesive zone method is a numerical tool developed to model crack initiation and growth in quasi-brittle materials considering the material softening effect. The pore pressure cohesive zone model has been applied to investigate the hydraulic fracture with different rock properties. The hydraulic fracture predictions of a three-layer water injection case have been compared using the pore pressure cohesive zone model with revised parameters, LEFM-based pseudo 3D model, a Perkins-Kern–Nordgren (PKN) model, and an analytical solution. Based on the size of the fracture process zone and its effect on crack extension in ductile rock, the fundamental mechanical difference of LEFM and cohesive fracture mechanics-based methods is discussed. An effective fracture toughness method has been proposed to consider the fracture process zone effect on the ductile rock fracture.     

类砂质泥岩常规三轴浆压致裂起裂压力试验研究

为深入探究两淮矿区典型砂质泥岩劈裂注浆起裂机制,研制了常规三轴劈裂注浆试验装置,开展了类砂质泥岩浆压致裂起裂压力模型试验,基于试验结果分析了岩石强度与应力状态对注浆起裂压力、裂缝扩展形态影响规律,揭示了砂质泥岩劈裂注浆起裂机制。研究表明：起裂压力与岩石抗压强度呈正相关,且岩石抗压强度越高,劈裂路径越复杂;起裂压力对围压的敏感程度远高于轴压,且应力差 Δσ =σ_V −σ_H越大,裂缝形态越规整;孔压三轴条件下,封闭裸孔段浆压致裂法确定的岩石抗拉强度值约为单轴抗拉强度的 2.5倍。该研究结果可为今后类似岩层劈裂注浆参数设计与施工提供参考。     

Geomechanical Characteristics of Gas Shales: A Case Study in the North Perth Basin

Gas shales are one type of unconventional reservoirs which have attracted significant attention for gas production in recent years. Gas production from very tight shales requires employment of hydraulic fracturing as a stimulation technique. To design hydraulic fracture operation the mechanical properties of the targeted and surrounding formations should be estimated. Also, the magnitude and orientation of in situ stresses in the field need to be known to estimate the fracture initiation and propagation pressures. This study focuses on gas shale characteristics in the North Perth Basin and uses data corresponding to well Arrowsmith-2 (AS-2) which is the first dedicated shale gas well drilled in Western Australia. A log-based analysis was used to build the rock mechanical model (RMM). The RMM results were used to set up a hydraulic fracturing laboratory experiment. The test was done in the presence of three principal stresses to mimic the real field stress conditions. The test results include the pressure–time curve which was used to estimate the initiation and propagation pressure at that depth. The results were used to draw some practical conclusions related to hydraulic fracturing operation in the field.     

川南深层页岩水力压裂缝网扩展规律数值模拟研究

3500 m以深页岩气资源量占整个川南地区总资源量的比例高达86.5%,该区深层页岩气藏构造复杂,压裂形成复杂缝网的难度大,有必要通过数值模拟研究深层页岩气复杂缝网主控因素,对实现川南地区深层页岩气的效益开发具有重要意义。在对川南地区页岩气气田某井的岩芯进行细观尺度下的观察并构建二维裂缝模型的基础上,利用位移间断边界元法(DDM)模拟深层页岩水力压裂过程中水力裂缝与天然裂缝相互作用的物理力学过程,研究主应力、应力差和压裂液排量对裂缝扩展的影响。结果表明:在高应力差条件下缝网的复杂程度和总长度急剧降低,缝网的平均宽度增大,且平均宽度随排量增加而增大的能力变得有限。在高应力差条件下提升压裂液排量,缝网长度的增加以产生新生裂缝为主,同时提升排量对于激活天然裂缝有一定的提升作用,但是效果有限。相比于拉张裂缝,剪切裂缝的形成受主应力和压裂液排量的影响更显著,在高应力差条件下缝网中剪切裂缝的长度急剧降低。随着压裂液的注入,在较低应力差和相同压裂液注入量的情况下,低排量工况下的裂缝长度逐渐大于高排量工况下的裂缝长度。在应力差较高的情况下裂缝扩展的速率较低,同时会使提升排量而形成更多新生裂缝的能力变得有限。基于显微镜观察构建的裂缝模型计算出的结果能够较好地符合场地实际,为深层水力压裂设计和施工提供参考。