城市人口空间分析及其GIS应用模型

城市作为大规模集中的人类非农性社会经济活动在二维平面上的投影点，相互之间存在着空间作用，这使得城市人口的变动不仅仅是其内在属性影响的结果，还是城市实体空间分布作为位置变量对城市人口内在属性综合作用的结果。文章通过实证进行了城市人口空间分析，并探讨了相关GIS应用模型特性和建立的诸多问题。     

The Upper Pennsylvanian Pittsburgh Coal Bed: Resources and Mine Models

The U.S. Geological Survey recently completed a digital coal resource assessment model of the Upper Pennsylvanian Pittsburgh coal bed, which indicates that after subtracting mined-out coal, 16 billion short tons (14 billion tonnes) remain of the original 34 billion short tons (31 billion tonnes) of coal. When technical, environmental, and social restrictions are applied to the remaining Pittsburgh coal model, only 12 billion short tons (11 billion tonnes) are available for mining. Our assessment models estimate that up to 0.61 billion short tons (0.55 billion tonnes), 2.7 billion short tons (2.4 billion tonnes), and 8.5 billion short tons (7.7 billion tonnes) could be available for surface mining, continuous mining, and longwall mining, respectively. This analysis is an example of a second-generation regional coal availability study designed to model recoverability characteristics for all the major coal beds in the United States.     

Flexible Spatial Multilevel Modeling of Neighborhood Satisfaction in Beijing

This article develops an innovative and flexible Bayesian spatial multilevel model to examine the sociospatial variations in perceived neighborhood satisfaction, using a large-scale household satisfaction survey in Beijing. In particular, we investigate the impact of a variety of housing tenure types on neighborhood satisfaction, controlling for household and individual sociodemographic attributes and geographical contextual effects. The proposed methodology offers a flexible framework for modeling spatially clustered survey data widely used in social science research by explicitly accounting for spatial dependence and heterogeneity effects. The results show that neighborhood satisfaction is influenced by individual, locational, and contextual factors. Homeowners, except those of resettlement housing, tend to be more satisfied with their neighborhood environment than renters. Moreover, the impacts of housing tenure types on satisfaction vary significantly in different neighborhood contexts and spatial locations.     

中国土地利用变化及其影响的空间建模分析

通过 GIS建模 ,本文分析了我国土地利用的变化与其影响因子之间的相互作用关系 ,并着重对耕地的变化及其空间分布进行了模拟。研究发现 ,土地利用的变化主要是自然与经济因素综合作用的结果 ,并且区分不同的规模尺度与不同的区域类型 ,将对提高土地利用空间变化模型的精度有着重要的影响。     

Applicability of Citygreen Urban Ecosystem Analysis Software to a Densely Built Urban Neighborhood

In efforts to increase greenspace in cities, planners have relied on a series of arguments about the benefits of parks and other greenspace, including their economic value. The commercially available software program, CITYgreen 4.0, an extension of ArcView, calculates economic values for this purpose. The software evaluates the benefits of trees and other landscape features for energy use, stormwater runoff, air pollution, carbon sequestration, and wildlife habitat. While many examples are available of the use of CITYgreen in suburban morphologies, we set out to evaluate the applicability of CITYgreen for assessing these effects in a densely populated urban neighborhood. We inventoried 146 acres of urban land uses (commercial, residential, and institutional) in a Los Angeles neighborhood. CITYgreen does not calculate energy savings for structures larger than single-family residences, reducing its utility in densely built urban environments. The stormwater runoff reduction module works well when the field data themes were clipped so that the highest canopy (i.e., trees, shrubs, grass, or impermeable surface but no combination thereof) was recorded in every part of the study area. Carbon sequestration and air pollution removal modules worked well, but do not incorporate the best available science. Wildlife analysis falls short of its potential, given the extensive field data collected to use the program.     

论地理信息系统的应用与发展

论述了地理信息系统产生与发展,从分析系统的技术特点入手,揭示了其发展与应用的密切关系,进一步指出了地理信息系统的应用潜力与发展方向。     

Neighborhood size and spatial scale in raster-based slope calculations

Raster-based slope estimation is routine in GIS. Like many other terrain attributes, the slope at a location is determined from elevations of surrounding cells. This spatial extent – ‘neighborhood size’ – is often treated as the ‘spatial scale’ of the calculation. In fact, neighborhood size and spatial scale are two connected yet different concepts, but few studies have investigated the relationship between them. The distinction is important because neighborhood size is under user control whereas spatial scale is merely implicit in the computational method. This article attempts to clarify and provide a more precise meaning of the two terms by considering slope operators from the standpoint of the frequency (or wavenumber) domain. This article derives analytical expressions for the amplitude response functions of four popular slope estimators. These are used to characterize the individual methods and also to show that the neighborhood size and spatial scale of a slope calculation are not numerically the same. In fact, because there is no single spatial scale that can be unambiguously associated with a given neighborhood size, neighborhood size cannot be an adequate indicator of spatial scale. Furthermore, this article shows that different indices of ‘scale’ yield different impressions about the action of a slope estimator and its response to changing neighborhood size. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the amplitude response function when investigating the spatial scale. The article also provides guidance for GIS practitioners when selecting a slope estimation method.     

多维空间分析的关键技术--空间数据立方体

介绍空间数据立方体在“数字城市”建设中的作用以及国内外研究现状;讨论非空间维、空间维、数字度量、空间度量的基本概念和结构,给出空间数据立方体的完整描述。空间数据立方体的分析操作主要由概括分析、局部分析、全局分析和旋转分析组成,介绍这些分析操作的功能和结构;结合具体实例数据介绍多维缓冲区空间分析。     

The Impact of Spatial Heterogeneity on Ecosystem Service Value in a Case Study in Liuyang River Basin,China

In previous studies the value of ecosystem services was evaluated microscopically by ecological indicators such as soil properties, biomass, carbon storage, oxygen release, water quality, and others. In this paper, the spatial heterogeneity of ecosystem services in Liuyang River basin was studied from the perspective of Geographic Information System (GIS) based spatial relationships by using a combination of geographic data and spatial analysis technologies. The Liuyang River basin was divided into grids with a resolution of 1km×1km. The weights of factors that affect the value of ecosystem services (such as topography, geological disasters, roads, scenic spots, vegetation coverage, and plant net primary productivity) were evaluated using the entropy method and analytic hierarchy process (AHP) in order to investigate the influence of natural and social factors on the value of ecosystem services in a quantitative manner. The results demonstrate that the value of ecosystem services is mainly affected by vegetation coverage, plant net primary productivity, and road network density. The value of ecosystem services grows with the increase in either vegetation coverage, plant net primary productivity, or road network density. Different types of land play different roles in ecosystem services. Cultivated land, grassland, and water each have significant supply and regulating functions while forest has significant regulating and supporting functions. The value of ecosystem services of cultivated land and water that are closely related to human activity is significantly influenced by spatial heterogeneity. In contrast, the effect of spatial heterogeneity on the value of ecosystem services of forest land and grassland that are located in mountains and hills, far away from the human accumulation zone, is insignificant.     

The Geospatial Semester: Concurrent Enrollment in Geospatial Technologies

Geospatial technologies are becoming more ubiquitous in our society; however, efforts to sustainably and effectively bring these tools to secondary education have proven challenging. An innovative program in Virginia, the geospatial semester (GSS), is described. The program offers high school students the opportunity to learn about geospatial technologies and apply them to local problems, and students can earn university credit. This article shares details of the program, along with examples of student work. Assessment of the program's impact shows that GSS students have increased spatial vocabularies and improved performance in making claims and providing evidence compared with non-GSS students.     

基于空间统计分析与GIS的人口空间分布模式研究--以甘肃省天水市为例

该文将空间统计分析与GIS相结合,探讨天水市人口空间分布模式。研究表明,天水市人口空间分布呈现“西北-东南”模式,存在显著的空间集聚现象,四种类型的空间关联在空间分布上具有明显的规律性。利用空间统计分析方法能够扩展和加强GIS的空间分析功能,从而更深入地探索、分析、处理和解释人口分布的空间模式与空间关联,为进一步研究空间模式的发生尺度和塑造该模式的空间过程奠定基础。     

Street networks in relation to landforms: Implications for fast-growing cities简

In addition to socio-economic factors, major landforms may affect the city structure and urban form. Here we show that landforms have significant effects on the city shape and street patterns of the fast-growing Iranian cities of Dezful （a river） and Khorramabad （moun- tains and valleys）, but no clear effects on the cities of Yazd and Nain. Also, where the street orientation is peaked, the Gibbs/Shannon entropy （a measure of dispersion or spread） is low, but increases as the distribution becomes more uniform because of landform constraints. The streets in the old inner parts of all the cities are, on average, shorter and denser （more streets per unit area） than the streets of the newer outer parts. The entropies of the outer parts are also greater than those of the inner parts, implying that the street-length distribution gradually becomes more dispersed or spread as the city expands. All these cities have been fast growing in the past decades, with the newer outer parts expanding rapidly. As shown here, the rapidly formed outer parts （with greater dispersion in street patterns） have significantly different textures from those of the older inner parts, indicating different functionality and growth processes. These quantitative methods for street-network analysis can be used worldwide, particularly for analysing the effects of landforms on city shape and texture.     

广西壮语地名分布与演化的GIS分析

以壮族人口聚居的广西壮族自治区为研究区,通过解读《中华人民共和国地名大辞典》等资料,构建了一个乡镇、县、市的壮语地名地理信息系统(GIS)数据库,并借助空间可视化技术直观显示了壮语地名集中程度从广西西南部左右江流域和西部山区向东部逐渐降低。回归模型揭示了壮语地名的分布相对集中于地势高、坡度陡的边远地区。对命名时代的分析表明,壮语地名的几何中心随时间东移,汉语地名的几何中心西推,两者逐渐靠拢,表明二者在空间分布上的趋同,映证了广西逐渐走向壮汉杂居的历史过程。本文演示GIS和相关科学分析(包括空间分析和数理统计)方法用于历史文化研究的潜力,旨在促进自然科学与人文社会科学的有机结合,推动交叉学科的发展。     

南方小型矿业城镇土地生态敏感性评价——以湖南省桂阳县为例

从分析桂阳县土地利用现状入手,结合其自然地理条件和社会经济等状况,选取对区域土地利用影响较大的地质灾害、水环境、土壤侵蚀和生境等因素进行单因子生态敏感性分析,在GIS技术支持下运用多因子加权求和模型,对桂阳县土地生态敏感性进行综合评价,按生态敏感性高低将研究区划分为生态敏感区、生态弱敏感区和生态不敏感区。评价结果表明,生态敏感区和弱敏感区各占研究区的28.7﹪和41.6﹪,说明研究区土地生态敏感性总体上较高,生态风险较大。最后,有针对性地提出桂阳县土地可持续利用建议,为其土地生态环境保护和产业经济布局提供参考。     

Job/Housing Imbalance and Commuting Time in the Atlanta Metropolitan Area: Exploration of Causes of Longer Commuting Time

Commuting is the major source of congestion and air pollution in the United States. For almost a decade, urban policy-makers have been concerned about the geographical balance between locations of jobs and housing as a strategy for reducing traffic congestion and air pollution in American cities. Despite the popularity and apparent acceptance of the job/housing (J/H) imbalance concept among public policy-makers, little empirical research has been done on the J/H imbalance and how it relates to commuting patterns. This research examines commuting patterns in the Atlanta metropolitan area to determine the extent to which commuting flow volume is the result of an imbalance between the location of home and workplace by using the most sophisticated and largest geographical scale data provided by the 1990 U.S. Census of Transportation Planning Package. This paper uses a Geographic Information System (GIS) to measure the job/housing imbalance within a commuting catchment area having a 7-mile radius from the centroid of each Transportation Analysis Zone. Analysis of variance, stepwise multiple regression and cartographic evidence all confirm the relationship between the imbalance of jobs and housing (J/H) and mean travel time to work. This investigation highlights the fact that the imbalance between the location of jobs and housing is the most important determinant for longer commuting and suggests that higher quality housing growth close to the job-rich communities may benefit the workers to economize the commuting time.     

空间信息分析技术

在GIS技术日趋成熟和空间数据极大丰富的今天,通过分析空间数据探索空间过程机理正变得日益迫切。空间信息分析技术至少包括以下六个主要方面:(1)空间数据获取和预处理;(2)属性数据空间化和空间尺度转换;(3)空间信息探索分析;(4)地统计;(5)格数据分析;(6)复杂信息反演和预报。本文提出了解决具体应用问题一般的空间数据分析计算、结果解释和反馈程序。认为空间过程的一般共性和作为共同的研究对象,各种不同的方法技术最终可能导致空间数学(spatialmathematics)的产生,同时发展鲁棒的空间分析软件包对于普及空间数学是必要的。     

经济适用住房在城市中的空间分布——基于DEM的武汉市实例分析

经济适用住房作为具有保障性质的政策性住房,其在城市中的空间分布决定了居住其中的中低收入家庭在城市中的空间位置和聚散程度,这不仅是一个建设选址问题,也关系城市经济社会的发展。基于经济适用住房的特点,分析了经济适用住房在城市中空间分布的“两阶段性”,分布过程中面临的问题,并提出经济适用住房“空间福利”概念和计算方法;选取武汉市作为分析实例,基于GIS 平台和构建DEM的方法对武汉市经济适用住房的空间分布概况、空间福利比较以及微观面上的建设选址和空间质量分配问题进行了分析和探讨。     

基于GIS的淤泥质潮滩侵蚀堆积空间分析

通过野外滩地长期水准详测资料，利用地理信息系统的GRID和TIN模块产生潮滩高程、坡度、二维剖面、侵蚀与堆积分布图，并获取测点所在位置的高程、坡度和侵蚀量，对获取的数据及空间分布图进行分析，结果表明：侵蚀主要发生在-7m以上的岸坡和潮滩，堆积主要出现于广阔的深水岸坡和7部分高滩，侵蚀速率以滩前深槽岸坡最快，年侵蚀率达17.9cm/a，并呈加速趋势，海岸线向陆后退速率为31m/a，侵蚀、堆积的闭合深度约为-9.5m，空间分布表现为自北而南的3个明显分带，即潮滩轻微侵蚀区，滩前深槽岸坡强烈侵蚀区和深水岸坡缓积区，东西向比较，东部，中部侵蚀大于西部。     

广州市保障性住房社区居民的居住-就业选择与空间匹配性

从居住-就业区位选择角度出发,以广州市典型保障性住房社区(棠下小区、同德小区)为案例,研究保障性住房居民的居住－就业选择特征及其空间匹配性的群体差异和影响机制。经过十多年的发展,研究小区发生明显的居住人群过滤现象,出现大量转售和转租情况,形成保障性住房、商品房、转租房、原单位房的住户结构。保障性住房住户和商品房住户的居住与就业地的空间关系变化较大,其空间不匹配问题突出,但二者在形成机制上存在较大差异。前者主要因保障性住房供应的政策性因素,使其住户的区位选择与主要就业场所不匹配而引发的,属于被动迁移型空间不匹配现象;后者主要是购买转售的保障性住房的住户,为获取保障性住房的政策性福利而通过市场方式选择远离其就业场所空间而引发的,属于主动选择型空间不匹配现象。私人转租房住户和原单位房住户的居住－就业空间匹配性良好。保障性住房的转租和转售在一定程度上产生了政策性福利的再分配,存在一定的不公平性;同时,居住－就业空间不匹配对相关居民的生活质量也带来一定的影响。因此,需要进一步研究保障性住房合理的空间布局方案和实施途径,优化城市空间结构,在考虑社会公平的前提下尽量解决各类群体的居住与就业问题。