Sensitivity of East Asian climate to the progressive uplift and expansion of the Tibetan Plateau under the mid-Pliocene boundary conditions

A global atmospheric general circulation model has been used to perform eleven idealized numerical experiments, i.e., TP10, TP10, .., TP100, corresponding to different percentages of the Tibetan Plateau altitude. The aim is to explore the sensitivity of East Asian climate to the uplift and expansion of the Tibetan Plateau under the reconstructed boundary conditions for the mid-Pliocene about 3 Ma ago. When the plateau is progressively uplifted, global annual surface temperature is gradually declined and statistically significant cooling signals emerge only in the Northern Hemisphere, especially over and around the Tibetan Plateau, with larger magnitudes over land than over the oceans. On the contrary, annual surface temperature rises notably over Central Asia and most parts of Africa, as well as over northeasternmost Eurasia in the experiments TP60 to TP100. Meanwhile, the plateau uplift also leads to annual precipitation augmentation over the Tibetan Plateau but a reduction in northern Asia, the Indian Peninsula, much of Central Asia, parts of western Asia and the southern portions of northeastern Europe. Additionally, it is found that an East Asian summer monsoon system similar to that of the present initially exists in the TP60 and is gradually intensified with the continued plateau uplift. At 850 hPa the plateau uplift induces an anomalous cyclonic circulation around the Tibetan Plateau in summertime and two anomalous westerly currents respectively located to the south and north of the Tibetan Plateau in wintertime. In the mid-troposphere, similarto-modern spatial pattern of summertime western North Pacific subtropical high is only exhibited in the experiments TP60 to TP100, and the East Asian trough is steadily deepened in response to the progressive uplift and expansion of the Tibetan Plateau.     

青藏高原隆升对亚洲季风形成和全球气候与环境变化的影响

综合介绍了青藏高原隆升对亚洲季风形成,半半球大气定常行星波建立,区域和全球气候变迁及环境演化的影响,并对近年来的研究进展作了较为详细的评述;指出今后需要深入研究的若干问题。     

青藏高原和落基山脉对ENSO影响的比较研究

本文利用耦合气候模式研究了“有/无”青藏高原和落基山脉对厄尔尼诺—南方涛动（ENSO）的影响,并从温度变率方程的角度详细分析了ENSO变化的成因,结果表明:移除青藏高原或落基山脉均会造成ENSO变率增强;ENSO变率在无青藏高原试验中增强的幅度比在无落基山脉试验中更大。ENSO变率在地形敏感性试验中的变化与热带太平洋平均气候态的改变密切相关。移除青藏高原后热带太平洋信风减弱,大气对流中心东移,混合层变浅,温跃层变平,呈现出El Ni?o型海温分布,这些平均态的变化使海表风应力敏感性,Ekman抽吸敏感性以及温跃层敏感性幅度增强,最终导致ENSO振幅增大60%。然而,在移除落基山脉的情景下,热带太平洋信风变化更加复杂,大气对流中心稍有东移,混合层加深,温跃层变平,呈现出类La Ni?a型海温分布。这些变化增强了风应力敏感性和温跃层敏感性,最终导致ENSO振幅仅增大15%左右。本文研究表明,在地质时间尺度上青藏高原和落基山脉的抬升均抑制了ENSO变率。     

Paleoclimate Modelling at the Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences

Paleoclimate modelling is one of the core topics in the Past Global Changes project under the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and has received much attention worldwide in recent decades. Here we summarize the research on the Paleoclimate modeling, including the Holocene, Last Glacial Maximum, and pre-Quaternary climate intervals or events performed at the Institute of Atmospheric Physics under the Chinese Academy of Sciences (IAP/CAS) for over one decade. As an attempt to review these academic activities, we emphasize that vegetation and ocean feedbacks can amplify East Asian climate response to the Earth’s orbital parameters and atmospheric CO2 concentration at the mid-Holocene. At the Last Glacial Maximum, additional cooling in interior China is caused by the feedback effects of East Asian vegetation and the ice sheet over the Tibetan Plateau, and the regional climate model RegCM2 generally reduces data-model discrepancies in East Asia. The simulated mid-Pliocene climate is characterized by warmer and drier conditions as well as significantly weakened summer and winter monsoon systems in interior China. On a tectonic timescale, both the Tibetan Plateau uplift and the Paratethys Sea retreat play important roles in the formation of East Asian monsoon-dominant environmental pattern during the Cenozoic.     

A Possible Impact of Cooling over the Tibetan Plateau on the Mid-Holocene East Asian Monsoon Climate

By using a 9-level global atmospheric general circulation model developed at the Institute of Atmospheric Physics (IAP9L-AGCM) under the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the authors investigated the response of the East Asian monsoon climate to changes both in orbital forcing and the snow and glaciers over the Tibetan Plateau at the mid-Holocene, about 6000 calendar years before the present (6 kyr BP). With the Earth’s orbital parameters appropriate for the mid-Holocene, the IAP9L-AGCM computed warmer and wetter conditions in boreal summer than for the present day. Under the precondition of continental snow and glacier cover existing over part of the Tibetan Plateau at the mid-Holocene, the authors examined the regional climate response to the Tibetan Plateau cooling. The simulations indicated that climate changes in South Asia and parts of central Asia as well as in East Asia are sensitive to the Tibetan Plateau cooling at the mid-Holocene, showing a significant decrease in precipitation in northern India, northern China and southern Mongolia and an increase in Southeast Asia during boreal summer. The latter seems to correspond to the weakening, southeastward shift of the Asian summer monsoon system resulting from reduced heat contrast between the Eurasian continent and the Pacific and Indian Oceans when a cooling over the Tibetan Plateau was imposed. The simulation results suggest that the snow and glacier environment over the Tibetan Plateau is an important factor for mid-Holocene climate change in the areas highly influenced by the Asian monsoon.     

我国对末次冰期冰盛期东亚区域气候模拟的研究

末次冰期冰盛期（或称为末次盛冰期）,为第四纪更新世最后一个冰期的鼎盛时期,该时期的气候与当代气候迥然不同。近年来,中国科研工作者已就末次冰期冰盛期东亚区域气候开展了一些数值模拟工作。结果表明：该时期中国大陆地表气温降低,中东部地区降水显著减少,东亚冬季风增强、夏季风显著减弱。在国际古气候模拟比较计划（PMIP）标准试验的基础上,进一步指出东亚植被的反馈作用、青藏高原可能冰川的反馈作用、以及西太平洋表面温度的作用能够引起额外的气候效应,可在一定程度上改进PMIP标准试验的模拟效果。     

MM5对末次盛冰期中国气候的模拟研究Ⅱ:海陆分布、植被和大尺度环流背景变化的影响

利用全球模式CCM3嵌套区域模式MM5的方法研究了末次盛冰期海陆分布、植被和大尺度环流背景场变化对末次盛冰期气候变化的作用。模式结果表明:与现代相比,末次盛冰期东亚地区海陆分布发生的变化造成这一地区冬季减温,夏季增温,这个变化对中国东部近海地区的温度和降水产生明显的影响,尤其是对降水的影响。它使得中国东部地区降水减少,由此造成的降水减少占末次盛冰期降水减少的25%—50%。海陆分布的变化对内陆和中国西部地区影响很小。末次盛冰期中国东部地区植被发生了明显的变化,温带和寒带植物南移,热带植物的覆盖范围减少。中国东部地区植被的巨大变化对温度产生了影响,使该地区冬季增温,夏季减温,年平均温度变化不大。末次盛冰期全球气候发生巨大的变化,即大尺度环流背景场变化。它使得中国地区的温度和降水产生显著变化,这个变化造成中国地区温度降低,并且决定了温度变化的主要分布和变化特征,东北地区是中国末次盛冰期降温最大的地区,青藏高原的降温超过同纬度的东部地区等。同时,大尺度背景场的变化还控制着降水的变化,末次盛冰期中国西部地区和东北地区降水的变化几乎完全是背景场变化引起的,其对华北和华东地区降水的影响大约为50%—75%。综合我们研究的影响末次盛冰期中国地区气候变化的因子,按影响程度由大到小排序为:大尺度环流背景场、海陆分布变化、植被变化、CO2浓度变化和地球轨道参数变化。     

Decadal variation of surface solar radiation in the Tibetan Plateau from observations, reanalysis and model simulations

In this study, the annual and seasonal variations of all-sky and clear-sky surface solar radiation (SSR) in the eastern and central Tibetan Plateau (TP) during the period 1960–2009 are investigated, based on surface observational data, reanalyses and ensemble simulations with the global climate model ECHAM5-HAM. The mean annual all-sky SSR series shows a decreasing trend with a rate of ?1.00 Wm^?2 decade^?1, which is mainly seen in autumn and secondly in summer and winter. A stronger decrease of ?2.80 Wm^?2 decade^?1 is found in the mean annual clear-sky SSR series, especially during winter and autumn. Overall, these results confirm a tendency towards a decrease of SSR in the TP during the last five decades. The comparisons with reanalysis show that both NCEP/NCAR and ERA-40 reanalyses do not capture the decadal variations of the all-sky and clear-sky SSR. This is probably due to a missing consideration of aerosols in the reanalysis assimilation model. The SSR simulated with the ECHAM5-HAM global climate model under both all-sky and clear-sky conditions reproduce the decrease seen in the surface observations, especially after 1980. The steadily increasing aerosol optical depth (AOD) at 550 nm over the TP in the ECHAM5-HAM results suggests transient aerosol emissions as a plausible cause.     

Dust size evidence for opposite regional atmospheric circulation changes over east Antarctica during the last climatic transition

Three east Antarctic ice cores (Dome B, EPICA-Dome C and Komsomolskaia) give evidence for a uniform dust input to the polar plateau during the last glacial maximum (LGM)/Holocene transition (20 to 10 kyr BP) and the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr versus ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd isotopic signature of the mineral particles highlights a common provenance from southern South America at that time. However, the size distribution of dust from the three ice cores highlights important differences within the east Antarctic during the LGM and shows clearly opposite regional trends during the climatic transition. Between Dome B and Dome C the timing of these changes is also different. A geographical diversity also arises from the different phasing of the short-term (multi-secular scale) dust size oscillations that are superposed at all sites on the main trends of glacial to interglacial changes. We hypothesize the dust grading is controlled by size fractionation inresponse to its atmospheric pathway, either in terms of horizontal trajectory or in altitude of transport. Such mechanism is supported also by the dust size changes observed during a volcanic event recorded in Vostok ice. Ice core dust size data suggest preferential upper air subsidence over the EDC-KMS region and easier penetration of relatively lower air masses to the DB area during the LGM. At the end of the last glacial period and during the climatic transition the region of relatively higher subsidence progressively moved southward. The scenario proposed, supported also by the LGM/Holocene regional changes of snow accumulation, likely operates even at sub-millennial time scale.     

关于末次盛冰期青藏高原大范围冰盖存在可能性的再研究

通过4组数值敏感性试验,利用BIOME3生态模式对末次盛冰期中国大陆植被分布状况进行了数值模拟,再次研究了该时期青藏高原大范围冰盖存在的可能性问题.结果表明,末次盛冰期大陆植被发生了大规模的变化,总体呈退化趋势;在降温5℃、降水减少10%、二氧化碳下降145×10-6和地球轨道参数轻微变化的情况下,青藏高原约1/2的地区已经被冰覆盖;进一步的降温和干燥则会加大高原冰的覆盖面积和大陆其余地区植被的退化.     

Tibetan Plateau summer precipitation: covariability with circulation indices

Relations between Tibetan Plateau precipitation and large-scale climate indices are studied based on the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and the boreal summer season. The focus is on the decadal variability of links between the large-scale circulation and the plateau drought and wetness. Analysis of teleconnectivity of the continental northern hemisphere standardized summer precipitation reveals the Tibetan Plateau as a major SPI teleconnectivity center in south-eastern Asia connecting remote correlation patterns over Eurasia. Employing a moving window approach, changes in covariability and synchronizations between Tibetan Plateau summer SPI and climate indices are analyzed on decadal time scales. Decadal variability in the relationships between Tibetan Plateau summer SPI and the large-scale climate system is characterized by three shifts related to changes in the North Atlantic, the Indian Ocean, and the tropical Pacific. Changes in the North Atlantic variability (North Atlantic Oscillation) result in a stable level of Tibetan Plateau summer SPI variability; the response to changes in tropical Pacific variability is prominent in various indices such as Asian monsoon, Pacific/North America, and East Atlantic/Western Russia pattern.

     

Ice-free glacial northern Asia due to dust deposition on snow

During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 21 kyr BP), no large ice sheets were present in northern Asia, while northern Europe and North America (except Alaska) were heavily glaciated. We use a general circulation model with high regional resolution and a new parameterization of snow albedo to show that the ice-free conditions in northern Asia during the LGM are favoured by strong glacial dust deposition on the seasonal snow cover. Our climate model simulations indicate that mineral dust deposition on the snow surface leads to low snow albedo during the melt season. This, in turn, caused enhanced snow melt and therefore favoured snow-free peak summer conditions over almost the entire Asian continent during the LGM, whereas perennial snow cover is simulated over a large part of eastern Siberia when glacial dust deposition is not taken into account.     

MM5 Simulations of the China Regional Climate During the LGM.Ⅱ: Influence of Change of Land Area, Vegetation, and Large-scale Circulation Background

Using a regional climate model MM5 nested to an atmospheric global climate model CCM3, a series of simulations and sensitivity experiments have been performed to investigate the relative LGM climate response to changes of land-sea distribution, vegetation, and large-scale circulation background over China.Model results show that compared with the present climate, the fluctuations of sea-land distribution in eastern Asia during the LGM result in the temperature decrease in winter and increase in summer. It has significant impact on the temperature and precipitation in the east coastal region of China. The impact on precipitation in the east coastal region of China is the most significant one, with 25%-50% decrease in the total precipitation change during the LGM. On the other hand, the changes in sea-land distribution have less influence on the climate of inland and western part of China. During the LGM, significant changes in vegetation result in temperature alternating with winter increase and summer decrease, but differences in the annual mean temperature are minor. During the LGM, the global climate, i.e., the large-scale circulation background has changed significantly. These changes have significant influences on temperature and precipitation over China. They result in considerable temperature decreases in this area, and direct the primary patterns and characteristics of temperature changes. Results display that, northeastern China has the greatest temperature decrease, and the temperature decrease in the Tibetan Plateau is larger than in the eastern part of China located at the same latitude. Moreover, the change of large-scale circulation background also controls the pattern of precipitation change. Results also show that, most of the changes in precipitation over western and northeastern parts of China are the consequences of changing large-scale circulation background, of which 50%-75% of precipitation changes over northern and eastern China are the results of changes in large-scale circulation background. Over China, the LGM climate responses to different mechanisms in order of strength from strong to weak are, the large-scale circulation pattern, sea-land distribution, vegetation, CO2 concentration, and earth orbital parameters.     

MM5 Simulations of the China Regional Climate During the LGM.II: In uence of Change of Land Area, Vegetation, and Large-scale Circulation Background

Using a regional climate model MM5 nested to an atmospheric global climate model CCM3, a series of simulations and sensitivity experiments have been performed to investigate the relative LGM climate response to changes of land-sea distribution, vegetation, and large-scale circulation background over China.Model results show that compared with the present climate, the fluctuations of sea-land distribution in eastern Asia during the LGM result in the temperature decrease in winter and increase in summer. It has significant impact on the temperature and precipitation in the east coastal region of China. The impact on precipitation in the east coastal region of China is the most significant one, with 25%-50% decrease in the total precipitation change during the LGM. On the other hand, the changes in sea-land distribution have less influence on the climate of inland and western part of China. During the LGM, significant changes in vegetation result in temperature alternating with winter increase and summer decrease, but differences in the annual mean temperature are minor. During the LGM, the global climate, i.e., the large-scale circulation background has changed signi cantly. These changes have signi cant influences on temperature and precipitation over China. They result in considerable temperature decreases in this area, and direct the primary patterns and characteristics of temperature changes. Results display that, northeastern China has the greatest temperature decrease, and the temperature decrease in the Tibetan Plateau is larger than in the eastern part of China located at the same latitude. Moreover, the change of large-scale circulation background also controls the pattern of precipitation change. Results also show that, most of the changes in precipitation over western and northeastern parts of China are the consequences of changing large-scale circulation background, of which 50%-75% of precipitation changes over northern and eastern China are the results of changes in large-scale circulation background. Over China, the LGM climate responses to di erent mechanisms in order of strength from strong to weak are, the large-scale circulation pattern, sealand distribution, vegetation, CO2 concentration, and earth orbital parameters.     

Seasonal variations in Dustfall and its iron content over North China

Extensive dustfall collections were carried out from April 2001 to May 2002 in North China. The highest level of dustfall occurred in the Gobi deserts and at the margins of sandy deserts in the region. The iron content in dustfall in North China varied from 0.6% to 6.0% and there was significant seasonal variation, which indicates the dust sources differed during the year. Although the iron content in dustfall in North China is higher in the Loess Plateau and arable lands and lower in the Gobi and sandy deserts, the total iron deposition was higher in the Gobi desert regions. If the fine particles （PM10） in dustfall in North China are the major contributors of dust transport to eastern China and western parts of the North Pacific, then the annual deposition rates of iron may have been underestimated in previous studies. Our analysis indicates that iron deposition may reach 1.38 × 10^3 to 2.43 × 10^3 kg km^-2 and that most iron deposition occurs in spring and summer. If the more-coarse fractions （PM50） are considered, deposition rates may reach 2.75 × 10^3 and 6.80 × 10^3 kg km^-2, which would represent a large source of iron deposition in eastern China and the western North Pacific.     

青藏高原大气水分循环特征

青藏高原对亚洲季风环流的形成有重要作用,同时作为"世界屋脊"拥有丰富的冰川、积雪、河流、湖泊和地下蓄水层。青藏高原特殊大地形动力和热力作用深刻地影响着亚洲与全球大气水分循环,也对全球气候与环境产生深远的影响。基于青藏高原在亚洲夏季风系统大气水分循环过程的重要地位,从青藏高原对全球大气水分循环重要作用的视角,综述了青藏高原大气水分循环过程中青藏高原局地热力对流、高原的"阶梯式"水汽流爬升"第二类条件不稳定(CISK)"物理模型、青藏高原视热源结构影响及多尺度水汽汇流通道、海洋-青藏高原"水汽源-汇"结构、青藏高原跨半球垂直环流圈水分循环结构、青藏高原大气水分循环综合模型等的相关研究进展,剖析了青藏高原大气水分循环综合模型的研究背景,探讨了青藏高原特殊大地形热力驱动机制及其云水效应,描述出与青藏高原热力驱动的亚洲区域和跨半球垂直环流圈水分循环结构,揭示了青藏高原热力强迫与海洋-大气-陆地水文过程特殊的相互反馈作用。青藏高原发源的亚洲河流水系是为人口众多的亚洲区域供给生活、农业和工业用水的重要水资源之一。因此,认识在全球变暖背景下青藏高原的水分循环及其对水资源变化影响至关重要,仍需深入地探讨青藏高原大气水分循环机制及其全球影响效应。     

Impact of topography and land-sea distribution on East Asian paleoenvironmental patterns

Much geological research has illustrated the transition of paleoenvironmental patterns during the Cenozoic from a planetary-wind-dominant type to a monsoon-dominant type, indicating the initiation of the East Asian monsoon and inland-type aridity. However, there is a dispute about the causes and mechanisms of the transition, especially about the impact of the Himalayan/Tibetan Plateau uplift and the Paratethys Sea retreat. Thirty numerical sensitivity experiments under different land-sea distributions and Himalayan/Tibetan Plateau topography conditions are performed here to simulate the evolution of climate belts with emphasis on changes in the rain band, and these are compared with the changes in the paleoenvironmental patterns during the Cenozoic recovered by geological records. The consistency between simulations and the geological evidence indicates that both the Tibetan Plateau uplift and the Paratethys Sea retreat play important roles in the formation of the monsoon-dominant environmental pattern. Furthermore, the simulations show the monsoon-dominant environmental pattern comes into being when the Himalayan/Tibetan Plateau reaches 1000–2000 m high and the Paratethys Sea retreats to the Turan Plate.     

IMPACT OF UPLIFT OF TIBETAN PLATEAU AND CHANGE OF LAND-OCEAN DISTRIBUTION ON CLIMATE OVER ASIA*

Using an improved CCM1/NCAR climate dynamic model and a combination distribution of land-ocean-vegetation during 40-50 MaBP,a series of numerical experiments representing different stages of the Tibetan Plateau uplifting and different land-ocean distributions are designed to discuss the influence of the Plateau uplifting and land-ocean distribution variation on Asian climate change.It is shown that Tibetan Plateau uplifting can firstly increase the precipitation in China during the period from initial uplift to half height of modern Tibetan Plateau and then decrease the rainfall during the time from the half height to the present plateau. At the same time.the uplifting can reduce surface air temperature over China.Besides.the effects of the uplift and land-ocean distribution change on the variation of winter and summer Asian monsoon circulation are also discussed.     

IMPACT OF UPLIFT OF TIBETAN PLATEAU AND CHANGE OF LAND-OCEAN DISTRIBUTION ON CLIMATE OVER ASIA

Using an improved CCM1/NCAR climate dynamic model and a combination distribution ofland-ocean-vegetation during 40-50 MaBP,a series of numerical experiments representingdifferent stages of the Tibetan Plateau uplifting and different land-ocean distributions are designedto discuss the influence of the Plateau uplifting and land-ocean distribution variation on Asianclimate change.It is shown that Tibetan Plateau uplifting can firstly increase the precipitation inChina during the period from initial uplift to half height of modern Tibetan Plateau and thendecrease the rainfall during the time from the half height to the present plateau.At the same time.the uplifting can reduce surface air temperature over China.Besides.the effects of the uplift andland-ocean distribution change on the variation of winter and summer Asian monsoon circulationare also discussed.     

Asian dust depositions over the Asian region during March 2010 estimated by ADAM2

The Asian Dust Aerosol Model 2 with the MM5 meteorological model has been employed to estimate the dust emission, dust concentration, and wet and dry deposition of dust in the Asian region for the month of March in 2010. It is found that the model simulates quite reasonably the dust (PM₁₀) concentrations both in the dust source region and the downstream region of Korea. The starting and ending times of most dust events and their peak concentration occurrence times are well simulated. The monthly mean maximum surface dust concentration (PM₁₀) is found to be 267???g?m^?3 in the domain of central northern China (CNC). Monthly total maximum dust emission of more than 32?t km^?2 and that of deposition of more than 25.4?t km^?2 (dry deposition of 24?t km^?2 and wet deposition of 1.4?t km^?2) are found to occur in the domain CNC, whereas the monthly mean minimum surface dust concentration (PM₁₀) is found to be 0.2???g?m^?3 in the domain of the Tibetan Plateau, where the monthly total dust emission (4?kg?km^?2) and the monthly total dust deposition (9?kg?km^?2) are found to be minimum. This monthly total dust deposition of 9?kg?km^?2 (dry deposition of 7?kg?km^?2 and wet deposition of 2?kg?km^?2) is as large as 2.25 times of that of emission (4?kg?km^?2), suggesting net dust influx toward the Tibetan Plateau from the surrounding dust source regions. It is also found that the ratio of the total dust deposition to the total dust emission in the source region increases toward the downstream direction from 0.4 in the upstream source region of Taklimakan to 0.80 in the downstream source region of northeastern China. More than 90% of the total dust deposition is found to be contributed by dry deposition due to the lack of precipitation in the dust source region. The monthly mean dust concentration (PM₁₀) is found to decrease with distance away from the dust source region. The monthly mean dust concentration of 62???g?m^?3 over the Yellow Sea (YES) decreases to 4.3???g?m^?3 over the Northwestern Pacific Ocean (NWP). The monthly total dust deposition in the downstream region is also found to decrease away from the source region from 2.33?t km^?2 (dry deposition of 1.36?t km^?2 and wet deposition of 0.97?t km^?2) over the domain YES to 1.45?t km^?2 (dry deposition of 0.16?t km^?2 and wet deposition of 1.30?t km^?2) over the domain NWP. A large amount of the total dust deposition over the seas is contributed by wet deposition (more than 90%), causing a small decreasing rate of the total dust deposition with distance from the source region. The estimated dust deposition could adversely impact the eco-environmental system significantly in the downstream regions of the Asian dust source region, especially over the seas.