地球历史的地球化学节律

地球化学成分和其他地质现象一样，在地球发展过程中也表现出节律。文中选择大气中的ＣＯ２，海水中的δ＾３４Ｓ和＾８７Ｓｒ／＾８６Ｓｒ，地壳中的Ｋ／Ｎａ为代表，介绍了地球历史发展中的地球化学节律，同时人出了区域构造演化中的地球化学演化节律的研究实例。     

地球历史的地球化学节律

地球化学成分和其他地质现象一样，在地球发展过程中也表现出节律。文中选择大气中的ＣＯ２、海水中的δ３４Ｓ和８７Ｓｒ／８６Ｓｒ、地壳中的Ｋ／Ｎａ为代表，介绍了地球历史发展中的地球化学节律，同时还给出了区域构造演化中的地球化学演化节律的研究实例。在此基础上，对引起地球化学节律性变化的动力学机制进行了讨论，指出板块构造机制存在着时代的局限性，并提出了用“开”、“合”的思路去认识地球历史的地球化学节律性。     

地球工程学——地球系统:从过程认识到地球管理

经过相当长一段时间的酝酿讨论和反复修改完善,德国联邦政府教育与研究部(bmbtf)和德国科学基金会(DFG)共同策划制定的未来15年(2000～2015)的超大型研究计划"地球工程学"(Geotechnology)于2000年3月正式定稿并开始招标实施.德国政府预计对该计划的实施投入经费达5亿马克(DM).     

地球数据

赤道半径 6378.164公里极半径 6356.779公里地球椭球体的扁率 1/298.25赤道周长 40075.696公里地球表面积5.11×10~8平方公里     

地球内核比地球本身自转速度快

.中国科学家宋晓东及其英国同行保罗·目查颈友现地球内核的自转速度比地球本身的自转速度快。幄据这两位科学家的估算,地.球内核一年的转动比地壳转初快大约一度。地球内核经过大约400＄在地球内部完成一亥彻匠的自转,比地球多转一圈。地球内核比目球小一虑,但比目球重。地琼内核是滚态铁,流初产生电流,继而产生甲磁场。电磁场与内核导体的互相作用产生的力使内核转动。这一发现将有助于解释地恤场是扣何产生的,为什么能够保持35亿年。更重要的是,可以了解地球整个的演化过程。地球内核比地球本身自转速度快~~     

地球化学省与地球化学边界

根据中国大陆各种类型壳，幔源岩石和矿石的大量铅－锶－钕同位素资料，及全球特别是东亚大陆块体广泛的同位素与元素体系对比，发展了地球化学块体划分的同位素地球化学指标和填图方法，在此基础上开展了中国大陆的大尺度铅同位素矢量填图，确定了中国大陆主要地球化学省和地球化学急变带（边界），地球化学边界的形成与板块的斜结合以及结合以后岩石圈结构调整产生的克拉通边界密切相关，地球化学边界与重力正异常梯度带，莫霍面梯度带以及正负磁异常转换带存在平行和交错两种关系，研究表明地球化学急变带控制了中国大陆90％以上的超大型金，铜，锡，银，镍，铅－锌，铀，钾盐，硼镁，磷等（33个）和10个以上的大型矿集区。地球化学省划分制约着全球油气资源分布，而地球化学边界则具体控制着克拉通边缘前陆盆地中产油气位置，陆内六级以上强破坏性的浅源地震与克拉通边界－地球化学边界关系十分密切，喀斯特溶洞奇观的出现与地球化学边界关系同样相当密切，根据铅同位素地球化学填图确定的区域背景值可以对铅污染作出快速的定量评价。     

地球内核与地球深部动力学

地球内核由外核富含铁元素的液态物质结晶而成。经证实,内核正以约１（°）／ａ的速率相对于地幔向东转动。内核的旋转是通过穿过内核的地震波的走时随时间变化推测得到的。这种变化是最近十多年来揭示出的内核各向异性在空间方位的改变所造成。内核的各向异性被认为起因于各向异性的铁晶体的有序排列,但这种有序排列的机制还不清楚。内核在地球发电机中起着重要的作用。利用大型的并行计算机,人们已得到能产生像地磁场一样的三维发电机数值模拟。地震学观测到的内核差速旋转为最近的发电机数值模拟提供了支持。这种数值模拟曾预测：导体内核与外核产生的磁场的电磁耦合驱动了内核每年几度向东旋转。地核通过核幔边界的接触及内核与地幔的引力耦合与地幔存在强烈的相互作用。多学科领域的突破为认识地球的深部动力过程提供了极好的机会和手段。     

地球化学背景与地球化学基准

探讨了地球化学背景和地球化学基准的概念、含义和确定方法.认为随着地球化学的发展,地球化学背景的概念和含义都发生了很大的变化,由初期的注重其“量”到目前的关注其“质”,研究的目的不同,背景值的确定途径也不同.无论是地球化学背景还是地球化学基准,共同之处在于它们独特的参考功能,正是这种参照性质使地球化学背景和地球化学基准的研究在进行环境质量评价和环境立法时具有重要的理论意义和实用价值.     

流体地球科学与地球系统科学

近年来,地球系统科学逐渐成为地球科学的新趋势,但固体地球科学尚难于融入其中。其根本原因在于地球系统科学属于系统科学或复杂科学的组成部分,而固体地球科学其本质上属于理想科学的范畴,以研究线性地球过程为主,或者以理想科学的手法研究非线性地球过程。流体地球科学不仅研究地球的流体系统,也研究流体系统与固体系统的强和弱相互作用,是固体地球科学融入地球系统科学的唯一途径。     

下地壳含水性的演化 ——来自不同时代麻粒岩中长石水含量的证据

利用傅里叶变换红外光谱(FTIR)和电子探针(EMP)分析了早古生代的松树沟麻粒岩和桐柏麻粒岩地体以及古元古代的莒南麻粒岩包体(其寄主岩石为新生代玄武岩)中长石的水含量和化学成分。结果显示,麻粒岩中的长石均含有以OH和H2O形式存在的结构水;3个地点的长石水含量分别为465×10-6~733×10-6、210×10-6~993×10-6和717×10-6~1 239×10-6。对比前人报道的中生代(道县和汉诺坝包体)和古元古代(女山包体、汉诺坝地体)的麻粒岩研究结果,发现早古生代样品和古元古代样品中长石的水含量都比中生代样品明显的高,而早古生代和古元古代样品之间却没有差别,指示了中国东部下地壳在中生代之前更加富水。     

晋冀内蒙交界区下地壳流变性质的实验研究及其构造演化意义

酸性和基性麻粒岩的高温度压实验表明,基稳态流动律分别为：ε＝２０．７ｅｘｐ（－２８８／ＲＴ）·Δσ＾３．０和ε＝１０＾６．５９ｅｘｐ（－４２５／ＲＴ）·Δσ＾３．０２,并可与加拿大地盾的麻粒岩流动津相比。在下地壳的温度７００℃-１０００℃、压力１．０Ｇｐａ-１．２ＧＰａ和应变率１０＾－４／ｓ￣１０＾－７／ｓ条件下,岩石变形以韧性变形为主,并发育韧性剪切带,其中辉石和斜长石极易发生动态重结晶及定向排成线理,石英则巳静态恢复,此结果与野外观察的吻合。下地壳的宏观流变模型显示,增厚型下地壳存在一厚的低蠕变强度层,减薄型地壳则上地壳也出现低强度层,太陆下地壳这种低蠕变强度层的流变性质有助于岩石圈增厚和减薄的发生。     

Composition and evolution of the continental crust: Retrospect and prospect

Until the middle of the 20th century, the continental crust was considered to be dominantly granitic. This hypothesis was revised after the Second World War when several new studies led to the realization that the continental crust is dominantly made of metamorphic rocks. Magmatic rocks were emplaced at peak metamorphic conditions in domains, which can be defined by geophysical discontinuities. Low to medium-grade metamorphic rocks constitute the upper crust, granitic migmatites and intrusive granites occur in the middle crust, and the lower crust, situated between the Conrad and Moho discontinuities, comprises charnockites and granulites. The continental crust acquired its final structure during metamorphic episodes associated with mantle upwelling, which mostly occurred in supercontinents prior to their disruption, during which the base of the crust experienced ultrahigh temperatures (>1000 °C, ultrahigh temperature granulite-facies metamorphism). Heat is provided by underplating of mantle-derived mafic magmas, as well as by a massive influx of low H₂O activity mantle fluids, i.e. high-density CO₂ and high-salinity brines. These fluids are initially stored in ultrahigh temperature domains, and subsequently infiltrate the lower crust, where they generate anhydrous granulite mineral assemblages. The brines can reach upper crustal levels, possibly even the surface, along major shear zones, where granitoids are generated through brine streaming in addition to those formed by dehydration melting in upper crustal levels.     

中国东南新生代玄武岩中麻粒岩相捕虏体的新发现及其意义

本文报道了在中国东南地区女山、桂子山、西垄和麒麟等地新生代玄武岩中新发现的麻粒岩相捕虏体。研究显示女山存在多种岩石类型的捕虏体,其中本次研究新发现的石榴子石麻粒岩与二辉麻粒岩在矿物化学和形成条件上明显不同。石榴子石麻粒岩的次透辉石（富Al2O3,Na2O)、紫苏辉石（富Al2O3) 形成于较深（＞40km)的下地壳,厚的地壳和较低的地温梯度（20－24℃/km)表明当时女山处于相对稳定的克拉通环境;女山二辉麻粒岩的次透辉石和紫苏辉石（贫Al2O3,Na2O)形成于较高地温梯度（31－34℃/km）的构造背景,指示当时女山处于活动大陆边缘或裂谷环境。复杂的岩石类型和不同的形成条件表明女山的下地壳是由多期岩浆活动的产物组成。广东麒麟和雷州的二辉麻粒岩的次透辉石以低Al2O3和低Na2O为特征,温压估算显示它们形成于较浅部（23－27km)和高地温梯度的地质背景,指示当时华南处在强烈的拉张减薄的构造环境。浙江西垄和新昌的麻粒岩捕虏体的矿物学特征和形成条件介于女山和广东的麻粒岩捕虏体之间。女山麻粒岩捕虏体的岩石组合和形成条件与华北太古代麻粒岩地体和汉诺坝麻粒岩捕虏体相似,而与华南的明显不同,表明女山的下地壳隶属于华北板块。在华南沿海从北到南基性麻粒岩的发现,显示中生代基性岩浆的底侵作用普遍存在。     

下地壳麻粒岩包体研究进展及其意义

产于火山岩中的下地壳麻粒岩包体是人们窥视深部地壳的一个窗口 ,现已成为人们探索大陆下地壳物质组成和演化最直接的研究对象。下地壳岩石包体一般具有麻粒岩相矿物组合 ,主体由镁铁质麻粒岩组成 ,以出现紫苏辉石矿物为标志 ,下地壳包体的平衡温度为 70 0～10 4 0℃ ,平衡压力在 0 .8～ 1.4GPa之间。在绝大多数地区 ,基性下地壳包体占优势 ,其共同特征是低SiO2 、高CaO和Mg# ,过渡族元素和不相容元素含量变化很大 ,不同构造背景和不同岩石类型的包体同位素成分也有差异 ,全球各大陆下地壳包体Nd、Pb同位素组成分布具有“块体效应”特征。利用出露于地表的下地壳麻粒岩包体可以探讨下地壳物质组成和成分 ,建立下地壳物性剖面和岩石圈模型 ,并可作为幔源岩浆底侵作用的重要判据之一。世界范围内下地壳麻粒岩包体研究表明 ,在探讨下地壳的组成特点上 ,由火山岩中麻粒岩包体和出露的麻粒岩地体两类岩石样品所获得的下地壳组成特点存在比较大的差异 ,前者较后者反映的下地壳组成更偏基性。下地壳包体的类型与成因对揭示大陆地壳的增生、演化方式以及壳—幔交换作用具有重要的指示意义     

大陆下地壳地球物理异常及其构造意义

下地壳反射层 (或反射下地壳 )、下地壳低速层和低阻层等一系列惊人发现唤醒我们必须重新认识大陆岩石圈 ,研究大陆下地壳。大陆下地壳中的地震反射层、低速层和下地壳低阻层相互伴生 ,在中、新生代伸展构造区和年轻造山带等活动构造区带的发育程度远远高于前寒武纪地盾和克拉通等稳定构造单元 ,其成因可能与层流构造及其相关的热活动、韧性剪切、岩浆作用、部分熔融、变质反应等有关 ,并随着大陆地壳构造 -热演化而变化。     

Granulite and pyroxenite xenoliths from the Deccan Trap: insight into the nature and composition of the lower lithosphere beneath cratonic India

Granulite and pyroxenite xenoliths in lamprophyre dykes intruded during the waning stage of Deccan Trap volcanism are derived from the lower crust beneath the Dharwar craton of Western India. The xenolith suite consists of plagioclase-poor mafic granulites (55% of the total volume of xenoliths), plagioclase-rich felsic granulites (25%), and ultramafic pyroxenites and websterites (20%) with subordinate wehrlites. Rare spinel peridotite xenoliths are also present, representing mantle lithosphere. The high Mg #, low SiO₂/Al₂O₃ and low Nb/La (<1) ratios suggest that the protoliths of the mafic granulites broadly represent cumulates of sub-alkaline magmas. All of the granulites are peraluminous and light rare-earth element-enriched. The felsic granulites may have resulted from anatexis of the mafic lower crustal rocks; thus, the mafic granulites are enriched in Sr whereas the felsic ones are depleted. Composite xenoliths consisting of mafic granulites traversed by veins of pyroxenite indicate intrusion of the granulitic lower crust by younger pyroxenites. Petrography and geochemistry of the latter (e.g. presence of phlogopite) indicate the metasomatised nature of the deep crust in this region.Thermobarometric estimates from phase equilibria indicate equilibration conditions between 650 and 1200 °C, 0.7-1.2 GPa suggestive of lower crustal environments. These estimates provide a spatial context for the sampled lithologies thereby placing constraints on the interpretation of geophysical data. Integration of xenolith-derived P-T results with Deep Seismic Soundings (DSS) data suggests that the pyroxenites and websterites are transitional between the lower crust and the upper mantle. A three-layer model for the crust in western India, derived from the xenoliths, is consistent with DSS data. The mafic nature of this hybrid lower crust contrasts with the felsic lower crustal composition of the south Indian granulite terrain.     

Petrology and Ar-Ar dating of granulites from the Galicia Bank (Spain): African craton relics in Western Europe

Abstract

Intermediate orthogranulites were collected on the western flank of the Galicia bank during the Galinaute II cruise in 1995. The petrography of these rocks reveals two types of granulites. The first type is hydrous granulites with K-feldspar + plagioclase + quartz + orthopyroxene + hornblende + garnet + biotite + opaque + zircon + apatite assemblage. Both hornblende and orthopyroxene define a weak foliation plane. A late deformation event is expressed by some fractures cross-cutting the foliation. The second is anhydrous granulites with K-feldspar + plagioclase + quartz + orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene + opaque + zircon + apatite assemblage. The rocks display a granoblastic texture and are affected by brittle deformation as testified by the development of numerous microfractures. The P-T conditions (7 ± 1 Kbar, 750 ± 50 °C) calculated from two representative samples demonstrate that the rocks equilibrated under granulite facies conditions. Ar-Ar dating gives Precambrian ages ranging between ca. 2500–2000 Ma for the amphibole from the hydrous granulite and 1600–1500 Ma for the core of the K-feldspar from the anhydrous and hydrous granulites. A younger age of 900 Ma is obtained from the recrystallized rims of the K-feldspar from the two samples. These data indicate that the granulitic rocks in the Galicia Bank had already been exhumed and cooled below ca. 140–400 °C (blocking T° for K-feldspar) in Precambrian times (900 Ma). Given the very well preserved granulitic minerals assemblage of the rocks, the granulites behaved as competent and metastable boudins during their exhumation. The granulitic samples were previously interpreted as fragments of the lower continental crust sampled by the main detachment fault during Cretaceous rifting, but they were part of an upper continental crust from the Precambrian. Geochronological data and petrological assemblages suggest that the granulite blocks in the Galicia Bank probably were derived from the North Armorican Domain (northern part of France) where a Precambrian terrain outcrops. The opening of the Bay of Biscay could be responsible for the scattering of the Precambrian terrain and may explain the presence of the granulitic blocks on both sides of the Bay of Biscay. During the subduction of Europe below the Iberian peninsula the granulite blocks were transported southward and incorporated into a Cretaceous conglomerate forming the accrecionary prism on the Northern Iberia Margin. The granulite facies blocks found on the Galicia Bank represent another example of Gondwanian relics supporting the idea that the West European plate belonged to the West African craton during the Proterozoic. © 2000 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS     

Generation of new continental crust by sublithospheric silicic-magma relamination in arcs: A test of Taylor's andesite model

The paradox of the Earth's continental crust is that although this reservoir is generally regarded as having differentiated from the mantle, it has an andesitic bulk composition that contrasts with the intrinsic basaltic composition of mantle-derived melts. Classical models for new crust generation from the mantle in two-stage processes fail to account for two fundamental facts: the absence of ultramafic residues in the lower crust and the hot temperature of batholith magma generation. Other models based on the arrival of already-fractionated silicic magmas to the crust have not received the necessary attention. Addition of new crust by relamination from below of subducted materials has been formulated as a process complementary to delamination of mafic residues. Here we show important support to relamination from below the lithosphere as an important mechanism for new crust generation in magmatic arcs of active continental margins and mature intraoceanic arcs. The new support is based on three independent lines: (1) thermo-mechanical modeling of subduction zones, (2) experimental phase relations and melt compositions of subducted materials and (3) geochemical relations between mafic granulites (lower crust) and batholiths (upper crust). The mineral assemblage and bulk geochemistry of lower crust rocks are compared with solid residues left after granite melt segregation. The implication is that an andesite magma precursor is responsible for the generation of new continental crust at active continental margins and mature oceanic arcs. According to our numerical and laboratory experiments, melting and eventual reaction with the mantle of subducted oceanic crust and sediments produce the andesite magmas. These ascend in the form of mantle wedge diapirs and are finally attached (relaminated) to the continental crust, where they crystallize partially and produce the separation of the solid fraction to form mafic granulites (lower crust) and granitic (sl) liquids to form the batholiths (upper crust).     

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987113000881

Granitod batholiths of I-type features(mostly granodiorites and tonalites),and particularly those forming the large plutonic associations of active continental margins and intracontinental collisional belts,represent the most outstanding magmatic episodes occurred in the continental crust.The origin of magmas,however,remains controversial.The application of principles from phase equilibria is crucial to understand the problem of granitoid magma generation.An adequate comparison between rock compositions and experimental liquids has been addressed by using a projected compositional space in the plane F(Fe t Mg)eAnorthiteeOrthoclase.Many calc-alkaline granitoid trends can be considered cotectic liquids.Assimilation of country rocks and other not-cotectic processes are identifed in the projected diagram.The identifcation of cotectic patterns in batholith implies high temperatures of magma segregation and fractionation(or partial melting)from an intermediate(andesitic)source.The comparison of batholiths with lower crust granulites,in terms of major-element geochemistry,yields that both represent liquids and solid residues respectively from a common andesitic system.This is compatible with magmas being formed by melting,and eventual reaction with the peridotite mantle,of subducted mélanges that are fnally relaminated as magmas to the lower crust.Thus,the off-crust generation of granitoids batholiths constitutes a new paradigm in which important geological implications can be satisfactorily explained.Geochemical features of Cordilleran-type batholiths are totally compatible with this new conception.