Evaluation of hydraulic conductivity of gap-graded granular soils based on equivalent void ratio concept

Gap-graded granular soils are used as construction materials worldwide, and their hydraulic conductivity depends on their relative content of coarse and fine grains, initial conditions, and particle shape. In this study, a series of constant head hydraulic conductivity tests were performed on gap-graded granular soils with different initial relative densities, fine contents, and particle shapes. The test results show that the hydraulic conductivity decreases with an increase in fine fraction and then remains approximately constant beyond the “transitional fine content.” The role of the structural effect on the hydraulic conductivity is different from that on the mechanical properties (such as stiffness and shear strength). This can be attributed to the degree of filling within inter-aggregate voids, disturbance of soil structure, and densified fine bridges between coarse aggregates. The equivalent void ratio concept was introduced into the Kozeny–Carman formula to capture the effect of fines (aggregates) on the “coarse-dominated” (“fine-dominated”) structure, and a simple model is proposed to capture the change of hydraulic conductivity of gap-granular soils. The model incorporates a structural variable to capture the effect of fines on “coarse-dominated” structure and coarse aggregates on “fine-dominated” structure. The performance of the model was verified with experimental data from this study and previously reported data compiled from the literature. The results reveal that the proposed model is simple yet effective at capturing the hydraulic conductivity of gap-graded granular soils with a wide range of fine contents, initial conditions, and particle shapes.

     

Dependence of thermal conductivity of snow on microstructure

A geometrical model, including different geometrical shapes influencing thermal conductivity of snow is proposed. The geometrical model has been assumed to comprise of unit cells having solid (ice) inclusion as an aggregation of spherical, cylindrical or cubical shapes with vertical connection, arranged in a cubic packing. From the geometrical model and one-dimensional heat transfer theory, the effective thermal conductivity has been computed. For this purpose, coupled one-dimensional heat transfer equations have been solved for steady-state condition to account for conduction in ice, conduction in air and latent heat transfer due to water vapour sublimation through air. The model demonstrates the dependency of thermal conductivity on density, grain-spacing, grain contact ratio and temperature. Spherical inclusions give highest conductivity while cubical inclusion estimates lowest value for the same density. Thermal conductivity has been found increasing sharply near to the packing density for all three shapes. Empirical model results and results obtained from existing microstructure based models have also been compared with the present model.     

基于微观结构重塑的非饱和冻土导热系数预测

为预测非饱和冻土的导热性能,基于土体微观结构,提出了非饱和冻土特征结构识别算法和多元素生成算法,并将该算法与传统有限单元法组合,建立非饱和冻土导热系数蒙特卡洛预测模型。通过土体SEM电镜图像,采用逆向四参数增长识别法识别土体中各组分含量、大小以及各方向分布概率;改进传统的四参数随机增长法,提出了考虑土、水、冰和气的多元素生成算法;基于生成的非饱和冻土模型,通过蒙特卡洛方法获得非饱和冻土导热系数,并与规范中冻土导热系数进行对比,验证了蒙特卡洛法预测模型的合理性（平均误差<4%）;通过多因素分析研究孔隙率、颗粒大小、土体导热性、饱和度以及结冰率对非饱和冻土导热性影响,各因素与导热系数的相关系数依次为：-0.352、-0.098、0.641、0.520和0.060,影响大小为：土颗粒导热性>饱和度>孔隙率>土颗粒大小>结冰率。各影响因素对非饱和冻土导热系数影响可以归纳为对热通量形成“热链”密度、宽度、连通性、热流承载力以及对“热桥”通量的影响。     

Determination of the relative thermal conductivity of solid samples by X-ray diffraction device

The thermal conductivity (TC) of metal and rock samples was determined, under ambient conditions, using standard X-ray diffraction equipment in which only the diffractometer sample holder had been modified from the original. As the method is comparative, standard reference materials were used: a copper standard for the analysis of metals and marble for the rock specimens. The marble was analyzed beforehand using a quick thermal conductivity meter QTM. In experimental measurements of TC the mean reproducibility value appears to be about 4% while the accuracy is about 5% for the examined rocks, and better for metals.     

南方地区城市生活垃圾导热系数的试验研究

温度场对垃圾填埋场的衬垫系统、气体运移和垃圾土工程特性等存在显著影响,导热系数是研究填埋场内温度场的重要参数。以台州卢岙里垃圾填埋场为研究对象,采用DRCD-3030型智能化导热系数测定仪,测定了不同孔隙率和含水率条件下的垃圾导热系数。试验中,垃圾试样的含水率分别取0%、5%、10%、15%、20%、25%、30%、35%、40%、45%和50%;垃圾的孔隙率分别取77.8%、75.0%、71.4%和66.7%。试验结果表明：干垃圾导热系数较小,仅为标准状态空气导热系数的2.5～3.5倍,并随孔隙率的增大而减小;非饱和垃圾的导热系数随含水率的增加而增大,当含水率相等时,孔隙率越小,垃圾的导热系数越大。根据垃圾导热系数的实测数据,利用修正几何加权平均模型和线性拟合技术,建立了垃圾导热系数的计算公式,可以为垃圾填埋场温度场的研究提供重要参考。     

Modeling the behavior of sandstone based on generalized plasticity concept

With the concept of generalized plasticity, a constitutive model for describing the deformation behavior of sandstone is proposed in this paper. This proposed model is characterized by the following features: (i) nonlinear elasticity under hydrostatic and shear loading; (ii) associated flow rule for pre‐peak simulation; (iii) substantial plastic deformation during shear loading; and (iv) significant shear dilation and distortion prior to the failure state. This model requires 10 material parameters, including three for elasticity and seven for plasticity. All of the parameters can be determined, in a straightforward manner, by the suggested procedures. The proposed model has been validated by comparing the triaxial test results of the Mushan sandstone under different hydrostatic stress, different stress paths, and cyclic loading condition. It is also versatile in simulating the deformation behaviors of two other sandstones. Upon slight modification of the model, the post‐peak behavior of sandstone can be reasonably predicted using proposed model. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于低场核磁共振的干湿循环对泥质砂岩微观结构劣化特性的影响

为研究岩石经历干湿循环后的细观损伤演化特征,选取三峡库区某边坡的泥质砂岩为研究对象,在饱和状态下分别对各组进行多次干湿循环试验。采用低场核磁共振技术(NMR)研究了干湿循环作用对泥质砂岩的损伤行为,结果表明:干湿循环作用下,核磁共振T_2谱图波峰信号幅度发生显著变化,T_2谱图面积、孔隙率呈现出定量的指数增长;通过核磁共振成像(MRI)发现,随着干湿循环试验的进行,岩石内部孔隙逐渐增多,孔隙尺寸增大,形成贯通的小裂隙并逐渐扩展,不同干湿循环次数作用后的MRI内部结构变化与扫描电镜(SEM)微观结构变化相似;MRI像素点的灰度值分布符合对数高斯分布,分布期望随循环次数逐渐饱和;随着循环次数增加,力学参数逐渐降低,峰值应力的降低与孔隙率的增大成正相关。     

利用等效墩法估算抗拔群桩基础的变形

根据荷载传递理论,提出了一个计算抗拔单桩位移的十分有效的迭代算法及预测抗拔群桩变形的简化分析方法。根据等效墩原理,将抗拔群桩基础简化为单一的墩基础,从而可以将单桩变形研究成果应用于群桩变形分析中。通过与现场试验结果进行比较表明,该方法不但可以大大节省抗拔群桩变形的计算时间,而且计算结果与实测结果也较为相符。     

Composition and pressure dependence of lattice thermal conductivity of (Mg,Fe)O solid solutions

We measured the lattice thermal conductivities of Fe_0.98O wüstite and iron-rich (Mg,Fe)O magnesiowüstite using the pulsed light heating thermoreflectance technique with a diamond anvil cell up to 61 GPa at 300 K. We found that the thermal conductivity of wüstite does not show a monotonic increase as a function of pressure, contrary to that of MgO periclase. Rocksalt (B1) to rhombohedral B1 transition is likely to induce an abnormal pressure response in the conductivity of wüstite. Our results also show that magnesiowüstite has a lower conductivity than that of MgO and FeO endmembers due to a strong iron impurity effect, which is well reproduced by a model considering phonon-impurity scattering in a binary solid solution.     

热处理砂岩微观结构及力学性质试验研究

采用核磁共振、电镜扫描、X射线衍射、单轴压缩等试验手段对某砂岩试样不同温度下(25～900℃)微观结构及力学性质的变化情况进行研究。研究表明:温度对砂岩试样微观结构具有重要影响,试样总孔隙率随温度的升高而升高,在150℃以下,由于中、大孔隙的减少,试样渗透性反而降低;当温度超过600℃时,中、大孔隙快速增加,试样渗透性能大幅增加;温度升高导致砂岩试样弹性模量减小、峰值应变增大以及孔隙压密阶段变长,宏观表现为脆性降低、塑性明显增强;热处理条件下,除微观结构的变化会导致砂岩试样力学强度改变外,试样矿物成分对其力学强度也具有十分重要的影响;450℃以下,由于矿物成分变化较小,试样力学强度主要受到孔隙度增加的影响,表现为强度随温度升高而降低;450～600℃,虽然孔隙率继续增长,但由于主要矿物高岭石发生脱水以及与其他离子形成新相矿物,进而导致试样强度没有随着孔隙增加而降低,反而出现一定的增长;超过600℃后,孔隙尤其是大孔隙的急剧增加,导致强度重新开始降低。     

Models of thermal conductivity of crystalline rocks

A numerical model of a rock sample provides estimates of conductivity related to mineral content that are very close to estimates provided by previous models. For any given volumetric mineral content conductivity may vary slightly, depending on the crystal arrangement and the crystal size. Order of crystallisation of the minerals causes differences of conductivity of less than 2%. Crystal size from small to up to 75% of the sample size creates differences in conductivity of the sample of about 3%. Disagreement of calculated values based on surface point-count of mineral content with measured values of the samples is up to 35%, which is attributed to the inability of one surface to adequately represent the volumetric mineral content.     

The hydraulic conductivity of the fractures intersecting Cambrian sandstone rock masses, central Jordan

This paper outlines the hydraulic characteristics of fractured rock masses and their implication in engineering works. The hydraulic behavior of subsurface fracture systems has been evaluated by means of hydraulic testing using packer tests and by fracture analysis. A comparison of the borehole results with those of surface fracture mapping provides a reasonable correlation between the two methods of measuring fractured rock hydraulic conductivity. The mean hydraulic conductivity value obtained from the boreholes is 36.5 LU (9.26᎒^-5 m/s), while the mean value of hydraulic conductivity obtained from field mapping of fracture data is in the order of 1᎒^-5 m/s. Based on the hydraulic conductivity values the sandstone rock mass can be considered medium to highly conductive; nevertheless, it seems to be almost impervious at greater depth. The empirical relationships which have been derived between hydraulic conductivity and both rock quality designation (RQD) and rock mass rating (RMR) indices indicated that the mean value of hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass could be estimated to be in the order of 10^-5 m/s, which is confirmed by the packer tests.     

Temperature dependence of the relationship of thermal diffusivity versus thermal conductivity for crystalline rocks

Thermal diffusivity governs the transient heat transport equation. Thus, a realistic characterisation of this parameter and its temperature dependence is crucial for geothermal modelling. Due to sparse information from boreholes, lack of samples, and elaborate measurement procedures, there is often insufficient data on thermal diffusivity at elevated temperatures. We make use of existing data on crystalline (metamorphic and magmatic) rock samples from the Kola Peninsula and the Eastern Alps and develop a general relationship for the temperature dependence of thermal diffusivity up to 300°C. The temperature dependence of thermal conductivity is parameterised itself, using an empirical relationship which is set up for both data sets as well. Hence, only thermal conductivity at ambient temperatures is required for determining the temperature dependence of thermal diffusivity. We obtain different coefficients for both data sets which can be explained by different geological settings, and therefore different mineral compositions and internal structures. Comparisons with other expressions for these rock physical parameters show a good agreement at ambient conditions. General relations for thermal diffusivity at elevated temperatures are rare. A comparison of our results with data from two crystalline samples from the KTB and data from the Southern Indian Granulite Province highlights the need for further data, which will help to quantify uncertainties.     

膨润土热传导性能的温度效应

以高庙子（GMZ07）和美国怀俄明州（MX80）钠基膨润土为研究对象,采用热探针法研究温度对压实膨润土试样热传导性能的影响。在保持干密度和含水率不变的情况下,使用KD2 Pro型热特性分析仪测定不同温度（5～90 ℃）试样的热传导系数,并对部分试样进行压汞试验。试验结果表明：GMZ07和MX80膨润土的热传导系数均随着温度的增大而增大,在90 ℃时最高可达5 ℃的1.2～1.5倍,主要原因是温度引起的水汽潜热传输促进了试样内部的热传导;当试样温度高于60 ℃时,温度对热传导系数的影响较低于60 ℃时更显著;含水率不为0时,两种膨润土热传导系数的温度效应均随干密度的增大而减小;干试样的热传导系数几乎不随温度发生变化,这与水汽潜热传输的强化机制有关。热传导系数温度效应的机制可理解为：热传导系数取决于试样内部可供潜热传输的水分和传热通道数。     

水-岩作用对砂岩卸荷力学特性及微观结构的影响

库岸坡岩体在工程建设中不可避免要遭遇开挖卸荷作用的影响,以三峡库区典型岸坡的层状砂岩为试验对象,设计开展了模拟库水位升降变化和浸泡-风干循环的水-岩作用试验,重点分析了水-岩作用对砂岩卸荷力学特性和微观结构的影响。研究表明：在10次水-岩作用过程中,砂岩的三轴卸荷强度、抗剪强度总体呈先陡后缓的劣化趋势,前4次水-岩作用的劣化速度较快,占总劣化度的70%左右,而后,劣化趋势逐渐趋缓;随着水-岩作用次数的增加,同一围压下岩样卸荷前的变形模量逐渐降低,围压卸载过程中变形模量的线性缓变阶段逐渐变短,非线性突变阶段逐渐变长、变缓,岩样的脆性特征逐渐减弱,塑性逐渐增强;水压力的反复升降变化和浸泡-风干循环作用对岩样造成了不可逆的渐进累积损伤,微观上岩样微裂纹、裂隙、孔隙逐步发育、汇集,宏观上就表现为孔隙率增加、三轴卸荷强度、抗剪强度的劣化。相关研究结论可为库岸边坡岩体开挖卸荷变形稳定分析提供参考。     

Effects of lime treatment on the hydraulic conductivity and microstructure of loess

Lime treatment of loess in foundation engineering modifies the soil structure, leading to changes in mechanical and hydraulic properties of soil, which in turn will affect the flow of water and transport of contaminants in the loess. In light of this, it is essential to identify the dominant effects of different lime treatments on hydraulic conductivity, and to ascertain the optimum lime treatment. For this purpose, we investigated the effects of dry density and lime content on changes in hydraulic conductivity and microstructure of loess in Yan’an City, China. The results indicate that hydraulic conductivity has a log negative correlation with dry density, and lime addition can result in a decrease of hydraulic conductivity of loess at the same dry density. Under a given degree of compaction, however, lime addition can lead to a decrease in dry density due to an increase in flocculation and aggregations. The significant decrease of dry density leads to an increase in hydraulic conductivity when lime content (in mass percentage) is lower than 3%. Nevertheless, when lime content is higher than 3%, the reactions between loess particles and lime will be intensified with an increase in lime content, and become the primary factors affecting pore characteristics. These reactions can further decrease the hydraulic conductivity of lime-treated loess, and the lowest hydraulic conductivity was obtained for lime-treated loess with 9% lime content. The excess lime (above 9% lime content) dramatically increased pore size, leading to a significant increase in hydraulic conductivity. Therefore, 9% is the optimum lime content for loess treatment, and the degree of compaction in engineering should be higher than 95%. In addition, statistical analysis of microstructure of lime-treated loess shows that the distribution trends of macro- and meso-pores coincided with that of saturated hydraulic conductivity, which indicates that lime content affects saturated hydraulic conductivity of lime-treated loess by changing the soil structure, especially the properties of pores larger than 8 µm.     

水−岩作用下砂岩力学特性及微细观结构损伤演化

在库水位反复升降作用下,库岸边坡消落带部分岩体处于浸泡―风干循环状态,其力学特性的劣化将直接影响库岸边坡的变形稳定。以三峡库区库岸边坡消落带砂岩为研究对象,设计并进行了考虑浸泡―风干循环和水压力升降变化的水?岩作用试验。结合SEM电镜扫描,分析了水?岩作用对砂岩微细观结构的影响,采用PFC2D离散元软件对水?岩作用下砂岩的劣化过程进行了模拟分析。研究结果发现：（1）水?岩作用下砂岩的力学性能劣化效应明显,弹性模量和单轴抗压强度总体呈现先陡后缓的劣化趋势,其中前6次的浸泡―风干循环作用导致的劣化效应尤为明显。（2）水?岩作用下砂岩的微细观结构变化特征明显,由较致密的孔隙式胶结结构逐渐向不规则的蜂窝状结构发展,宏观上就导致了砂岩变形和强度特性的劣化。（3）由PFC2D离散元模拟分析发现：水?岩作用导致岩石内部颗粒强度和颗粒间黏结强度逐渐劣化,非均匀性增强,荷载作用下的应变局部化特征逐渐明显,整体承载能力逐渐降低,破坏模式由典型的张拉破坏逐渐转变为剪切破坏。     

含层理砂岩热膨胀系数的试验研究

在放射性核废料处置、地热能源开采以及地下油气储存等工程中,热量的传递将会在很大程度上改变岩土材料的力学性质,因此,岩土体及缓冲材料的热力学参数,包括热传导系数、热膨胀系数、比热容对工程设计以及安全性评价有着至关重要的作用。利用自主研制的岩石膨胀系数测试仪对含层理砂岩进行了热膨胀系数试验,研究了岩石轴向和径向热膨胀系数的变化规律,结果表明:对于含水平层理岩样,随着温度的变化,当膨胀均匀后,轴向热膨胀系数约为14×10~(-6)℃~(-1),而径向热膨胀系数约为9×10~(-6)℃~(-1),前者约为后者的1.56倍,表现出明显的各向异性;相比于含水平层理岩样,含竖直或倾斜层理岩样的轴向膨胀系数未见显著差异,但径向热膨胀系数明显增加;相同温度下,径向热膨胀系数从大到小的顺序为:竖直方向、倾斜方向和水平方向;由于岩样中沉积层的存在,砂岩与沉积物质的膨胀性能并不相同,这将导致岩样的轴向和径向热膨胀系数表现出各向异性。该研究成果对于岩体的热-力耦合特性研究具有一定的参考意义。     

Evaluation of the streambed leakage concept in analytical models using data from three pumping tests

Two-dimensional analytical models of pumping induced drawdown and stream depletion account for the streambed properties and stream geometry. Using data from three pumping tests performed under various hydrologic conditions, the following hypotheses were tested: (1) a partially penetrating stream at a certain distance from the pumping well can be represented by the streambed leakage term in the analytical models; (2) in the streambed leakage term, the streambed conductance coefficient λ=(WK′)/m′ accounts for the average stream width W, the streambed thickness m′, and hydraulic conductivity K′. The first hypothesis was tested by comparing results from tests under flow and no-flow stream conditions. The second hypothesis was tested by comparing results from two tests under low and high streamflow conditions. Similar estimates of the hydraulic conductivity and storativity for all tests indicate the validity of the streambed leakage term. The drawdown data of the test under low- and high-flow conditions (varying W) do not follow the predictions of the analytical models, which results in inconsistent λ estimates. Thus, for different hydrologic conditions, λ cannot be scaled solely by the stream width W. One possible explanation for this result is streambed dynamics caused by the changes in the stream stage.

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Résumé Les rabattements dans les nappes et cours d’eau générés par des modèles analytiques de pompages en deux dimensions dépendent des propriétés du lit du cours d’eau considéré et de sa géométrie. En utilisant les données de trois essais de pompages effectués en conditions hydrologiques contrastées, les hypothèses suivantes ont été testées: (1) un ruisseau à pénétration partielle situé à une certaine distance du puits de pompage peut être exprimé par le terme de drainance dans les modèles analytiques; (2) dans le terme de drainance du lit du cours d’eau, le coefficient de conductivité du lit λ=(WK′)/m′ représente la largeur moyenne du cours d’eau W, l’épaisseur du lit m′, et la perméabilité K′. La première hypothèse a été testée en comparant les résultats des tests en conditions d’assèchement et d’écoulement. Pour éprouver la seconde hypothèse, les résultats de deux tests en conditions d’étiage et de hautes eaux ont été comparés. Sur l’ensemble des tests, la concordance entre les perméabilités calculées a permis de valider le terme de drainance du cours d’eau. Les rabattements observés en conditions d’étiage et de hautes eaux (W variable) ne suivent pas les prédictions des modèles analytiques, fournissant au final des estimations discordantes de λ. Aussi, dans le cas de conditions hydrologiques différentes, la seule largeur du cours d’eau ne suffit pas à estimer λ. Une explication possible de ce résultat réside dans la dynamique du lit causée par les variations de niveau du cours d’eau.

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Resumen Modelos analíticos en dos dimensiones de descenso inducido por bombeo y de agotamiento de la corriente del río representan las propiedades del lecho del río y la geometría del mismo. Usando datos de tres ensayos de bombeo llevados a cabo bajo condiciones hidrológicas variadas, se probaron las siguientes hipótesis: (1) puede representarse un río parcialmente penetrante a una cierta distancia del pozo de bombeo por el término de goteo a través del lecho del río en los modelos analíticos; (2) en el término de goteo a través del lecho del río, el coeficiente de conductancia del lecho del río λ=(WK′)/m′ representa el ancho promedio del río W, la potencia del lecho del río m′, y la conductividad hidráulica K′. La primera hipótesis fue comprobada comparando los resultados de pruebas bajo condiciones de flujo y no flujo de corriente. La segunda hipótesis fue probada comparando los resultados de dos pruebas bajo condiciones de corriente altas y bajas. Estimaciones similares de la conductividad hidráulica y el almacenamiento para todas las pruebas apuntan hacia la validez del término de goteo a través del lecho del río. Los datos de descensos de la prueba bajo condiciones de flujo altos y bajos (variando W) no siguen las predicciones de los modelos analíticos, lo que resulta en estimaciones inconsistentes de λ. Así, para condiciones hidrológicas diferentes, λ no puede ser escalada solamente con el ancho de la corriente W. Una posible explicación para este resultado es la dinámica del lecho del río causada por los cambios en el nivel del río.

     

The use of the equivalent single wheel load concept for discrete raft type pavements

With the increasing use of 2 meter square discrete raft type pavements to replace insitu concrete pavements and flexible pavement materials; it became necessary to assess the infinite pavement assumption, that an equivalent single wheel load could be used to represent the actual multiple wheel loading for pavement analysis. By carrying out a computer analysis the authors found that the raft pavement stresses varied according to the actual multiple wheel load and its position on the raft. Two series of laboratory experiments confirmed the computer results and showed that the concept of a single wheel load equivalent to the multiple wheel load considerably underestimated the pavement's life and should not be used for discrete raft type pavement design.