THEMATIC MAPPING OF PLANETS: CURRENT SITUATION AND PROSPECTS

Principles and objectives governing Soviet thematic mapping of nearby planets are outlined, types of information sources for such mapping categorized, and the suitability of different types of information sources for thematic mapping are evaluated. This is followed by a classification of thematic planetary maps according to type. The need for a standardized, systems approach to the determination of map scales, compilation and generalization, symbolization, and map design is emphasized as an essential prerequisite for the development of complex atlases of individual planets, atlases of “comparative planetology,” and the establishment of “planetary information systems.” Translated by Jay Mitchell; PlanEcon, Inc.; Washington, DC 20005 from: Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, geografiya, 1987, No. 6, pp. 60-67.     

MAPPING ANIMAL HABITATS

The authors propose a series of general methodological guidelines for animal habitat mapping. These include the use of “summary” indicators (of aggregate effects of environmental conditions on animal populations) as indices for mapping, the combination of laboratory and field work at all but the smallest scales of mapping, and explicit recognition (based on extensive studies of ecological characteristics and life cycles of species being mapped) that habitat boundaries in many cases vary dramatically from vegetation and landscape-geological boundaries. Habitat maps of two study areas are compared with vegetation and landscape maps at identical scales to demonstrate these differences. Translated from: Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, geografiya, 1985, No. 3, pp. 95-101.     

MAPPING GLOBAL PROBLEMS OF TODAY: THE FOOD PROBLEM

An approach to the mapping of food supply and distribution problems over the world is outlined and, more specifically, a program for the mapping of geographic types of diet in tropical nations, using Africa as a test case. Among the new types of cartographic products are maps and “typograms” showing the distribution, quality, and structure of standard diets (“food types”) based on various combinations of food products derived from crop agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting and gathering, and fishing in diverse natural and cultural environments. Sources of information and design considerations for the various elements of map content are elaborated. Translated by Jay K. Mitchell, PlanEcon, Inc., Washington, DC 20005 from: Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, seriya geograficheskaya, 1989, No. 4, pp. 98–107.     

USEFUL EXPERIENCE IN THE CREATION OF COMPUTER ATLASES

The activities of the Pacific Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences in the creation of a series of standardized computer (line printer) atlases of sown areas and yields of basic agricultural crops at 1:8,000,000 scale are described. Contributions by Institute researchers in the development or refinement of greytone scales for alphanumeric areal symbols, computer mapping programs in general, and applications of line-printer maps in planning and nature management are also mentioned. Translated from: Izvestiya Akademiya Nauk SSSR, seriya geografi-cheskaya, No. 3, 1986, pp. 128-130.     

AN EXPERIMENT IN THE COMPILATION AND USE OF A COMPLEX ENGINEERING-GLACIOLOGICAL MAP

A method for the compilation of 1:3,000,000-scale maps of natural nival-glacial phenomena is proposed for an area of the High Pamir Range in Soviet Central Asia. Such maps depict the distribution, frequency and intensity/magnitude, and potential impacts of such natural hazards as avalanches, mudslides, “dirty snow” avalanches (combined avalanches-mudslides in late spring), icings (naledy), and glacier pulsations, and are used in the planning of construction and the maintenance of roads and other transportation corridors during winter and spring. Hypothetical examples of the use of the maps are provided. Translated from: Materialy glyatsiologicheskikh issledovanly, USSR Geophysical Committee Publication No. 55. Moscow: Mezhduvedomstvenniy geofizicheskiy komitet, 1986, pp. 213–219.     

A CARTOGRAPHIC SIMULATION MODEL OF THE EFFECTS OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY ON THE ENVIRONMENT

The principles of systems mapping are employed in a model simulating the effects of human activity on the environment. The model takes the form of series of maps which are organized within three basic units or “blocks.” Block I contains general preliminary maps of land use and environmental change within an area which can serve as a basis for subsequent forecasting and proposals for improving land use. Block II contains maps that take stock of, evaluate, and predict human impacts on specific environmental components, and show the spatial distribution of measures proposed to ameliorate these impacts. Block III consists of maps synthesizing the component-related information of the preceding block for the purpose of providing summary assessments about the condition of the environment and land use conflicts in an area and targeting areas deserving the most comprehensive reclamation efforts. Methods of compiling the various maps are described in detail. Translated from: Izvestiya AN SSSR, seriya geograficheskaya, 1986, No. 2, pp. 114–127.     

MAPS OF COMBUSTIBLE FOREST MATERIALS

An article devoted to applied forest-fire mapping outlines principles for the compilation of maps depicting “raw materials” for such fires. Various types and densities of vegetation cover are classified in terms of combustibility, i.e., according to the intensity of burning expected once they are fully exposed to flames. These maps are used in conjunction with weather data and forecasts to predict and combat the spread of fire across an area. Particular attention is devoted to identification and mapping of “basic conductors” of combustion–layers of forest litter and mossypeaty vegetation along which a forest fire normally spreads. Translated from: Geografiya i prirodnyye resursy, 1987, No. 3, pp. 138-144.     

THE POSSIBILITY OF MEASURING AGRICULTURAL PRESSURE ON SOIL MAPPING UNITS

A generalized “coefficient of agricultural pressure on the soil,” derived from resource-level indices and related to the J. Kostrowicki typological model, is proposed and is related to soil mapping units. The general patterns of its spatial distribution within European Russia, based on experiments with maps, are confirmed by data in the literature. Translated by Edward Torrey, Alexandria, VA 22308 from: Izvestiya Akademii Nauk, seriya geograficheskaya, 1996, No. 5, pp. 124-134.     

BASIC TENETS OF A THEORY OF SCALING IN CARTOGRAPHY

The basic principles behind a theory of scaling in cartography are outlined and illustrated with a large number of examples. The following levels of scaling are used in the transformation of “(objective) empirical systems of relationships” to “abstract systems of relationships” for the purpose of their graphic representation: nominal, ordinal, interval, proportional or ratio, and absolute. While the first four levels (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio) are similar to those widely identified in the West, the absolute level represents what would be considered a special type of ratio scaling in Western practice. The paper includes criticism of certain graphic methods supposedly used by Western cartographers on maps employing the different levels of scaling (use of symbols differentiated by variations in internal structure, failure to correctly differentiate between interval, ratio, and absolute scaling, etc.). Measurement for mapping purposes should be based on careful analysis of the structure of relationships among the objects of mapping and on their preservation during numerical data transformations and graphic representation. Translated from: Vestnik Leningradskogo Universiteta, seriya geograficheskaya, geologicheskaya, 1986, No. 3, pp. 57-62.     

THE CONCEPT OF SPACE AND ITS PRESENTATION ON MAPS: THEORETICAL ASPECTS

The author defines cartographic space, i.e., the space encompassed by geographic maps, as the entire “geographic” envelope. Maps as spatial models of the concrete three-dimensional space of this envelope [increasingly this space is viewed as four-dimensional, when the element of time is included] depict geosystems of various levels and complexity and serve as an essential basis for analyzing their properties, internal processes, and relationships. The author argues against divorcing the study of cartographic space from an understanding of the content of the objects being mapped, and critically evaluates positions of other Soviet and East European cartographers on the “dual role” of the cartographic space of maps. Translated from: Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, geografiya, 1986, No. 2, pp. 3-9.     

USE OF THE CARTOGRAPHIC METHOD IN THE STUDY OF CHANNEL PROCESSES

A second paper on floodplain and channel mapping describes how the “cartographic method” (the use of maps to derive information about the world not readily available through other means of investigation) is applied through the use of special maps depicting the sizes and types of river channels, the character of floodplains and of channel deformation, and the general conditions responsible for channel evolution. The uses, strengths, and limitations of channel maps at small, intermediate, and large scales are discussed, as well as methods of cartographic presentation that have proven most effective. Translated from: Geografiya i prirodnyye resursy, 1986, No. 3, pp. 99-108.     

PROBABILITY ANALYSIS OF THE COMPLETENESS OF GEOGRAPHIC MAPS

The author outlines a method for quantitative analysis of the completeness of information presented on maps of varying scale, i.e., for determining, upon reductions in scale of an original map A, what magnitudes of loss in graphic detail will result in derivative maps B, C, D that are of equal relative completeness to the original. Empirical formulae are derived which describe intensities of selection typical of maps devoted to particular topics (stream networks, urban socioeconomic indices, etc.) and graphic methods are described which can be used to determine scale denominators at which specific reductions in the number of features can occur without losses in “completeness” or, conversely, the number of particular kinds of features that can be eliminated on maps (or portions of maps) upon reductions in scale without losses in completeness. Translated from: Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, geografiya, 1985, No. 5, pp. 17–23.     

INTERPRETATION OF THE AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE WITH SPACE IMAGERY

Heterochronous multispectral imagery from the “Fragment” scanner is used to identify and map a series of “natural-agricultural complexes,” or agricultural landscapes, of southern European Russia. Interpretation is based on imagery in the green, orange, red, and near-infrared zones of the spectrum (0.5-1.1 μm). Interpretation keys and other information designed to facilitate feature discrimination (optimal wavelengths, best seasons for imagining) are provided in many instances. Natural landscape and soil erosion maps are also compiled from the imagery, which supply information (an optimal crop rotation scheme and needed reclamation measures) used on the agricultural landscape map. Translated from: Vestnik Moskovs-kogo Unlversiteta, geografiya, 1985, No. 2, pp. 34-41.     

TOPOLOGY AND THE TRANSFORMATION OF CARTOGRAPHIC IMAGES

A survey of the use of topologic concepts of space in map transofrmation supports the author's contention that so-called “transformed images” represent for the most part rather arbitrary distortions of conventional maps constructed in Euclidean space. This paper demonstrates how truly topologic images can be created “from scratch,” i.e., without manipulation of either the sizes or shapes of areal units on preexisting maps. Images created by quantitatively defining “graphic ratios” of areal units can thus be replicated by other cartographers with a minimum of subjectivity. Translated from: Geodeziya i kartografiya, 1984, No. 12, pp. 28-31.     

FURTHER NOTES ON FIGURES OF REFERENCE

Abstract

Major Hotine (E.S.R., No. II, pp. 264–8) still finds the location of a reference spheroid to offer insuperable difficulties. I confess that my difficulty is to see his! In my previous article (E.S.R., No. 8) at the foot of page 76, I used the word “coincidence” in error for “parallelism”. This harmonizes the article and I am glad that Major Hotine has directed attention to the error.     

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC PRINCIPLES FOR THE COMBINATION OF REMOTE SENSING AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL MAPPING

A review of Soviet research describes methods of combining remote sensing and geodetic data in cartometric data bases—for the purposes of compiling more detailed and accurate “three-dimensional” terrain maps. The major objective is to provide, by means of photogrammetric techniques employing stereopairs or series of overlapping images, elevational data on selective key geomorphological points (along structure lines, summits of ridges, valley bottoms, etc.) which can be used to supplement (or replace) data obtained for the control points of a rectangular grid. Creation of digital models from these “geomorphological” points provides more accurate three-dimensional terrain maps. Translated from: Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, geografiya, 1986, No. 6, pp. 56-64.     

Epistemology of Geopolitical Atlases from the 1980s to the Early 2000s

Abstract

Since the early 1980s, we have seen a new influx of numerous geopolitical atlases. They have been produced to meet society's implicit need to fix the boundaries of international issues and the relationships of force between the various powers. These atlases clearly express established ideologies and allow us to determine various trends of thought; messages which the authors wish us to take on board by studying cartographic themes. This is the approach we will be taking in this article.

In this paper, we aim to show the epistemological development of geopolitical atlases. The first part of the article gives the general outline of the epistemological development of geopolitical atlases, in which two main periods stand out. The first corresponds with the 1980s, which can be described as a realist decade. The state was a geopolitical player that could not be overlooked within a bipolar world; maps showing conflicts between the two major powers and thematic maps showing an ideological clash between them are typical of the period. The second period, corresponding with the 1990s, begins with the fall of the regimes in the Soviet bloc. This period can be described as having a neo-realist approach, where the threat from the East had moved to terrorism and drug trafficking. The atlases follow the geopolitical development of the world and describe international structural changes. In conclusion, the paper will return to the important educational and informative role of atlases and their effects on the ideas they are able to disseminate amongst the population.     

V. I. LENIN AND SOVIET CARTOGRAPHY

The contributions of V. I. Lenin to Soviet cartography, as well as cartographic activity taking place as a direct result of his initiative, are reviewed. He decreed the organization of mapping services and his original and practical recommendations served as a basis for production of significant scientific maps and atlases which were effective tools in the organization and management of the Soviet economy and in educational institutions for many decades. Translated by Edward Torrey, Alexandria, VA 22308 from: Izvestiya AN SSSR, seriya geograficheskaya, 1989, No. 2, pp. 108–111.     

System Design Considerations for the Development of an Electronic Statistical Atlas

In the recent history of cartography, atlases deserve a prominent status among cartographic products due to the variety of their thematic content, the rather friendly appearance and their utilization by a wide spectrum of users. Advances in information technology, and more specifically in geographic information systems and digital mapping, have altered the fundamental way of using maps, and thus they have a major impact on every aspect of electronic atlas design and development. Although considerable effort has been made towards the production of electronic atlases, and successful systems are available, there are still a number of factors that must be considered towards the improvement of their design and functional characteristics. This paper elaborates on those factors and suggests a specific approach toward the design and development of electronic atlases, particularly electronic statistical atlases. This approach has been used for the development of the Statistical Atlas of the European Union (STATLAS_EU), which is intended to provide a user-friendly resource for statistical analysis.     

THE HYPSOMETRIC MAP AS A SPECIAL GEOMORPHOLOGICAL MAP

In a critique of maps used for geomorphological research (too cluttered to be read effectively, too general in respect to contour positioning), the author describes: (a) a methodology whereby conventional hypsometric maps can be corrected through the use of air photos, (b) outlines principles for symbol generalization and selection whereby the amount of geomorphological information perceived on hypsometric maps is increased, and (c) recommends the joint use of hypsometric, topographic photo-, and general geomorphological maps as the most effective means of terrain analysis. Translated by Larry Richardson, Glendale, CA 91202 from: Geomorfologiya, 1991, No. 2, pp. 38–45.