MAP READABILITY: EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Previous theoretical research on the characteristics of map readability [see MSRS, 1988, No. 4, pp. 276-283] is tested using several groups of subjects (already familiar with map use) in order to ascertain the most important elements facilitating map readability or detracting from it. The results are modeled through a series of regression equations in an effort to determine the relationships between specific characteristics (number of symbol size classes, frequency of symbols within classes, background complexity) and map readability (speed and accuracy of symbol identification). Translated by Edward Torrey, Alexandria, VA 22308 from: Vestnik Leningradskogo Universiteta, serlya 7 (geologiya, geografiya), 1988, No. 2, pp. 40-46.     

THE LANGUAGE OF MAPS AND ITS PRINCIPAL FEATURES

The author, head of the Department of Cartography at the Institute of Geography, analyzes the language of maps in terms of general semiotic principles. Using the similarity of processes in other language systems, he constructs a model of the language of maps that distinguishes two sublanguages, one reflecting the locational aspects of maps (coordinate grids, etc.), the other reflecting the map content. The discussion touches on the system of map symbols as a linguistic feature, analyzes the system of map language in terms of such linguistic features as vocabulary, grammar and syntax, and draws other analogies between the language of maps and other language systems. Translated from: Voprosy Geografii, No. 122/123, 1984, pp. 40-56.     

EXPANSION OF PAPER AS AFFECTING AREA

Abstract

For the sake of the junior reader we may repeat an old and simple investigation. Let us suppose that the paper on which a map is printed undergoes a regular expansion p in one direction, say the X direction, and another regular expansion q in the Y direction, perpendicular to the former; it is required to know the effect of these expansions on the area of any parcel on the map. Note that, so far as the mathematics are affected, X and Y are not necessarily parallel to the margins of the sheet; we shall take them here as axes of any rectangular coordinate system. The symbols p and q are regarded as ratios, so that 100p and 100p represent the percentage expansions; if the paper contracts instead of expanding, no more is necessary than to change the sign.     

IMPROVING MAPS OF POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

Ways of improving systems of symbols employed in population mapping are examined. Methods are investigated for adequately portraying population sizes with graduated geometric symbols in such cases where the number of size classes is too large for conventionally accepted size intervals between classes to be maintained. Among the approaches recommended are combining symbol size and color, and a table outlining different variants is included. The results of experiments performed for determining the readability of various symbolization schemes are summarized. Translated by Kurt E. Englemann, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 from: Geodeziya i kartografiya, 1989, No. 5, pp. 48–51.     

Visual clutter reduction in zoomable proportional point symbol maps

ABSTRACT

Proportional point symbols are commonly used in map displays. However, when such displays are zoomed out, the available map space shrinks and consequently symbols overlap and the display suffers from visual clutter. Therefore, solutions are needed to reduce visual clutter in zoomable map displays that contain proportional point symbols. The authors add to the body of knowledge through the investigation of the performance of three solutions: aggregation of unit areas, the displacement of overlapping symbols, and modified symbolization; four variations of modified symbolization are examined in detail. The original study begins with a consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of the solutions, with an emphasis on information loss. Thereafter, user sessions with 165 participants are arranged to gain empirical evidence of the performance of the solutions. The results reveal that although participants zoom out the map to zoom levels that implement visual clutter reduction techniques, they tend to zoom in the map and pan it to examine specific areas. Moreover, they willingly use the map with aggregated unit areas in cases when the solution facilitates task accomplishment. A certain amount of skepticism attaches to the solution that displaces overlapping symbols.     

地图符号系统的设计与实现

设计并实现了一套地图符号系统,提出了线状符号的附属属性设置实现,并采用了程序符号的思想实现一些相对特殊的如沙丘、河流、沼泽等地图符号,成功地对国家标准系列地形图图式进行了设计,实现了各种比例尺下的地图符号的绘制,完成了在Visual C 平台上所研制的地图符号软件系统的设计与开发.     

Assessing the Effectiveness of Dynamic Symbols in Cartographic Communication

Abstract

The age of the Internet poses new challenges to cartography. While cartographic animation has become a practical alternative, it is mostly used to depict both spatio-temporal and non-temporal changes. The paper concentrates on the use of dynamic symbols on a static base map. A visual test was carried out to obtain some perspectives about the cartographic communication of blinking point and line symbols. The results confirmed that dynamic symbols tended to attract the attention of the users in general and even in situations when the foreground–background contrasts were poor. Their effectiveness was more pronounced with symbols of a larger size but tended to diminish with an increasing number of blinking symbols. It was also observed that users were able to perceive differences in the frequency of flickering, particularly when the variation was large. The line animation method (marquee and grow-out) did not yield a substantial difference in visual responses in the case of blinking line symbols.     

基于描述方法的地图符号表达

分析了目前各地理信息系统软件实现地图符号的不同方法,以Bertin的图形视觉变量以及BNF为理论基础,提出了一套简洁、易于实现的地图符号描述性规则,可以方便地利用任何文本编辑器编辑和建立符号,允许多人同时工作,极大地提高了工作效率.     

AN EXPERIMENT IN SYSTEMATIZING THE CARTOGRAPHIC IMAGES OF GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES

The authors attempt to identify and standardize the cartographic symbols (“images”) used to represent a variety of specific geomorphological features. A large number of cartographic representations of landform features found on geological-geomorphological maps are classified in terms of their basic pattern/configuration and the level of complexity within each major pattern type. It is argued that the pattern or configuration of a cartographic symbol used to represent a geomorphological feature should represent the spatial structure of that feature with sufficient reliability to serve as a key to an understanding of its genesis. Translated from: Geomorfologiya, 1987, No. 2, pp. 62-66.     

Evaluating the Efficiency of Typographic Design: Gender and Expertise Variation

Abstract

Although the efficiency of label placement algorithms has been studied extensively, few studies considered the influence of the label designs on the efficiency of map readers. Labels are one of the most important elements on the map as they can provide more information than other symbols can. The design of the labels does have to stress the theme, shape and functionality of the associated objects, which results in a more efficient interpretation of the map content by the user. How the label designs can enhance the map readers’ efficiency (and thus the quality of the maps themselves) is the main objective of this study. A user study was conducted in which the participants were asked to locate a target label on a map. Different label designs were implemented across the trials. The participants’ reactions times were registered to measure their efficiency and statistically analysed using a one-way ANOVA. Two different users’ characteristics were considered: gender and expertise. Related to the size, shape, orientation and texture of the labels, a number of significant differences (P<0·05) and trends were located. Differences in efficiency between males and females, on the one hand, and between novices and experts, on the other hand, were also described statistically. Consequently, recommendations can be formulated regarding the design of labels in order to obtain more efficient maps, keeping in mind the map users’ characteristics.     

Effectiveness and Efficiency of Map Symbols for Dynamic Geographic Information Visualization

The quality of dynamic map symbols plays an important role in the representation of spatial-temporal changes. This paper reports an investigation into the quality of dynamic symbols. To assess the quality of such symbols, a set of traffic flow data is used for the production of different kinds of dynamic maps, with focus on four variables, i.e. size, color, frame rate and display format. Two quantitative measures are used for analysis, i.e. deviation and response time. A set of traffic data is used for the production of dynamic maps for evaluation. The experimental results show that the size is more efficient and more effective than color for dynamic maps with the same frame rate and display format. The most efficient and effective color class number is 10 on the large format display such as 1024 × 768 pixels. And the most efficient and effective size class number is 15 on large format display such as 1024 × 768 pixels. The effective frame rate for dynamic map animation is smaller than that of the general animation on the Internet or Quick Time and AVI format video. The most efficient and most effective frame rate is 3 frames per second in the color expression and 6 frames per second in the size expression. In sum, the effective and efficient value of color, size and frame rate on large format display is less than the value on the small format display. These results suggest the frame rate should be reduced on the small format display. It is hoped that the results from this study will be of help in the design of effective and efficient dynamic map symbols for geographical information visualization.     

基于ArcGIS的地图符号库的设计与实现

地理信息系统(GIS)的主要功能之一就是地图制图及输出。地图作为用户能够理解空间信息的主要图件，地图符号作为地图语言则在地图的制作和输出中起着非常重要的作用。美国ESRI公司开发的ARCGIS是功能强大的GIS软件平台，但是它的数据输入、编辑、查询与制图模块ArcMap中自带的符号库不能满足我国基本比例尺地图输出的要求，因此必须为它建立符合地图图式要求的符号库。本文重点论述了ArcGIS环境下地图符号库的设计方法，并分别讨论了点状符号、线状符号和面状符号的实现方式。     

Arno Peters: The man and his map

Abstract

This paper shows an experiment with tactile maps designed for visually impaired persons. Tests were carried out on a tactile map produced with 3D printing and including a new type of tactile symbols, volumetric symbols (3D). These symbols are localized faster than conventional flat relief symbols, with the same error rate, an improvement in the use of these tactile devices. Moreover, following tests, differences were found between types of participants with blind participants generally carrying out the proposed tasks better than the rest of users.     

THE POTENTIAL OF NIGHTTIME SPACE IMAGERY IN ANALYSIS AND MAPPING OF URBAN SETTLEMENT

A procedure is described for the use of nighttime space imagery in the mapping of an urban settlement hierarchy in the Federal Republic of Germany. City “brightness” values provide surrogate measures of urban settlement density, which are then mapped isarithmically. The resulting statistical surface is then divided into regions (first- and second-order settlement systems), and the map compared with one produced by quantitative (cluster analysis) techniques. The two regionalization schemes produce remarkably similar results, although the map compiled from the space image contained a greater number of regions, and was more detailed in other ways. Translated from: Vestnik Leningradskogo Universiteta, seriya geografiches-kaya, 1984, No. 6, pp. 112-114.     

现代城市数字测图方法浅析

本文分析比较了目前城市大比例尺数字化测图中主要方法的优缺点，并为实现数字化地形图中不连续线、面状符号及复杂线状符号向GIS的自动化导入，针对电子平板法提出了基础线的概念。对全站仪草图法，提出在全站仪上加挂微型计算机，并用常规摄像方法代替草图。     

浅析中国古地图符号表示方法

地图内容是通过地图符号来表达的,随着地图所承载的内容不断丰富以及对地图精度的要求不断提高,地图符号也在不断地发展演变。基于此,通过研究从战国到清朝的有代表性的中国古地图,围绕中国古地图符号象形这一最大的特点,总结了中国古地图符号的山水画法、抽象画法和符号化3种表示方法,阐述了中国古地图符号表达方式的变化。     

The World of Touch: Results of an International Survey of Tactile Maps and Symbols

Abstract

This paper reports the findings of an international survey that collected data on production methods, techniques, outputs and design preferences among tactile map producers, designers and researchers worldwide. A number of consistencies and inconsistencies are identified and we speculate on the extent to which the current state of tactile map production is likely to meet the needs of the client population. We describe the sample on which the report is based, the output in terms of quantity of maps produced, choice of production method, types of environment mapped and intended uses of maps. We also focus on issues of map design, such as the choice of map size and format, and choice of symbols.     

SOME ASPECTS OF TOPOGRAPHIC MAPPING OF THE SHELF

Shortcomings in the representation of bottom relief features on topographic maps of the continental shelves are examined, with particular attention given to submarine ridges and related features, the symbolization of which on such maps has been entirely ineffective. Specific recommendations are given on the form and color of symbols which can be used in upgrading the graphic impact of maps depicting such relief forms. Translated by Edward Torrey, Alexandria, VA 22308 from: Geodeziya i kartografiya, 1989, No. 1, pp. 35–40.     

USE OF SPACE PHOTOGRAPHS IN THE MAKING AND REVISION OF SMALL-SCALE MAPS

A brief review paper focuses on Soviet strategies for the use of space imagery, particularly photographic products (1:2,000,000 to 1:4,200,000 scale) from manned spaceflights, in the revision of small-scale general reference maps. Principles for the interpretation and mapping of basic map elements appearing on space photographs are outlined. Space photographs provide for reduction in time spent in map editing and the more correct analysis of the reliability of information and its generalization. A technology of map revision based on the joint use of original photographs and photomaps, with the transfer of revisions from photomaps to map originals, is proposed. Translated from: Geodeziya i kartografiya, 1986, No. 8, pp. 29-33.