Deep-water resedimentation of anhydrite and gypsum deposits in the Middle Miocene (Belayim Formation) of the Red Sea, Egypt

The Middle Miocene evaporites in the Red Sea rift were deposited within a complex system of fault-bounded basins that were episodically active during sedimentation. Such a tectonic framework is known to be highly favourable to resedimentation processes. An offshore petroleum well in the north-western Red Sea has cored, below a massive salt unit, an anhydrite-bearing succession which provides an excellent opportunity to study the processes of gravity induced redeposition of Ca-sulphates in a deep basin. Anhydrite deposits, interbedded with siliciclastic layers and thin halite layers, are composed of resedimented facies ranging from fine-grained laminated sediments to coarse-grained breccias. The components derive from the reworking of shelf sediments deposited initially in shallow water to supratidal settings on the surface and edges of structural highs bordering depressions: proximal siliciclastic deposits with interstitial anhydrite (cement patches, nodules) or gypsum and dolostones with early diagenetic anhydrite facies (nodular, chicken-wire) formed in sabkha conditions, interstitially grown gypsum crystals and subaqueous gypsum crusts precipitated in hypersaline ponds, and diatom-rich oozes formed in marine, shallow-water conditions. The homogeneity of the stable isotope composition and petrography of sulphates argue for the initial crystallization of Ca-sulphates within brines of the same origin and in closely interconnected sedimentary settings. The unconsolidated sediments redeposited as slope-foot accumulations were carried both as anhydrite (nodules, soft masses, various fragments, individual grains or crystals released by disintegration of large masses) and gypsum (crystalline aggregates or single crystals) later converted to anhydrite during burial. Layers of chaotic breccia are interpreted as the result of seismic events, whereas the fine-grained deposits could be related to redistribution by nepheloid layers of suspensions of finer grains released by disintegration of the soft anhydrite masses during downslope transport, or of in situ deposits removed by the turbiditic flows.     

Palaeogeographic and burial controls on anhydrite genesis: the Badenian basin in the Carpathian Foredeep (southern Poland, western Ukraine)

The Badenian (Middle Miocene) Ca-sulphate deposits of the fore-Carpathian basin – including the shelf and adjacent salt depocentre – have undergone varying degrees of diagenetic change: they are preserved mainly as primary gypsum in the peripheral part of the platform, whereas toward the centre of the basin, where great subsidence occurred during the Miocene, they have been totally transformed into anhydrite. The facies variation and sequence of Badenian anhydrites reflect different genetic patterns of two members of the Ca-sulphate formation. In the lower member (restricted to the platform), anhydrite formed mainly by synsedimentary anhydritization (via nodule formation), whereas in the upper member (distributed throughout the platform and depocentre) the various gypsum/anhydrite lithofacies display a continuum of distinctive anhydrite type-fabrics. These fabrics are based on petrographic features and show from the centre to the margin: (1) syndepositional, interstitial growth of displacive anhydrite; (2) early diagenetic, displacive to replacive (by replacement of former gypsum) anhydrite formation near the depositional surface; (3) early diagenetic, displacive to replacive anhydrite formation during shallow burial; and (4) late-diagenetic (and only partial) replacement of gypsum at deeper burial. The cross-shelf lateral relations of anhydrite lithofacies and fabrics suggest that the diagenesis developed as a diachronous process. These fabrics of the upper member reflect both palaeogeographic (linked to different parts of the basin) and burial controls. Anhydrite growth started very early in the basin centre, presumably related to high-salinity pore fluids; anhydritization prograded updip toward the shelf (landward in a generalized cross-section through the basin). The intensity of gypsum replacement by anhydrite was progressively attenuated landward by a decrease in the salinity of the pore fluids. In each part of the basin, the anhydrite fabric was also controlled by the texture and degree of lithification of the fine-grained primary gypsum lithofacies. Recrystallization of these anhydrite fabrics during late diagenesis, linked to deeper burial conditions, is insignificant, allowing reconstruction of the original anhydritization pattern.     

Sulphate–borate relations in an evaporitic lacustrine environment: the Sultançayir Gypsum (Miocene, western Anatolia)

Calcium-borates, mainly pandermite (priceite) and howlite, but also bakerite and colemanite, are intercalated within the Sultançayir Gypsum (Miocene, Sultançayir Basin, western Anatolia). This lacustrine unit, represented by secondary gypsum in outcrop, is characterized by: (1) a clear facies distribution of depocentral laminated lithofacies and debris-flow deposits, a wide marginal zone of sabkha deposits, and at least one selenitic shoal located toward the basin margin; (2) evaporitic cycles displaying a shallowing-upward trend; and (3) a diagenetic evolution of primary gypsum to (burial) anhydrite followed by its final re-hydration. The calcium borates precipitated only in the depocentre of the lake and were partly affected by synsedimentary reworking, indicating that they formed during very early diagenesis. The lithofacies, which are made up of a host gypsum (finely laminated) and borates (nodules, irregular masses and discontinuous bands; also fine laminations), indicate that the borates grew interstitially because of the inflow and mixing of borate-rich solutions with basinal brines. Borate growth displaced and replaced primary gypsum beneath a relatively deep depositional floor. Borate formation as free precipitates was much less common. The anhydritization of primary gypsum took place during early to late diagenesis (burial <250 m deep). This process also resulted in partial replacement of pandermite and accompanying borates (bakerite and howlite) as well as other early diagenetic minerals (celestite) by anhydrite. Final exhumation resulted in the replacement of anhydrite by secondary gypsum, and in the partial transformation of pandermite and howlite into secondary calcite.     

Mechanisms for anhydrite and gypsum formation in the Kuroko massive sulfide–sulfate deposits,north Japan

The Sr, Ba, and rare earth elements (REEs) concentrations and Sr isotopic composition of anhydrite and gypsum have been determined for samples from the Matsumine, Shakanai, and Hanaoka Kuroko-type massive sulfide–sulfate deposits of northern Japan to evaluate the mechanisms of sekko (anhydrite and gypsum) ore formation. The Sr isotopic compositions of the samples fall in the range of 0.7077–0.7087, intermediate between that for middle Miocene (13–15 Ma) seawater (0.7088) (Peterman et al., Geochim Cosmochim Acta, 34:105–120, 1970) and that for country rocks (e.g., 0.7030–0.7050) (Shuto, Assn Geol Collab Japan Monograph 18:91–105, 1974). The Kuroko anhydrite samples exhibit two types of chondrite-normalized REE patterns: one with a decrease from light REEs (LREEs) to heavy REEs (HREEs) (type I), and another with a LREE-depleted pattern (type II). Based on the Sr content and isotopic ratio (assuming an Sr/Ca (mM/M) of 8.7 for seawater), anhydrite is considered to have formed by mixing of preheated seawater with a hydrothermal solution of Sr/Ca (mM/M) = ca. 0.59–1.36 under the condition in which the partition coefficient (Kd) ranges between ca. 0.5 and 0.7. This results in the formation of anhydrite with higher Sr content with an Sr isotopic value close to that of seawater under seawater-dominant conditions. Larger crystals of type II anhydrite are partly replaced by smaller ones, indicating that anhydrite dissolution and recrystallization occurred after or during the formation of sekko ore. Gypsum, which partially replaces anhydrite in the Kuroko deposits, also exhibits two distinct chondrite-normalized REE patterns. Because LREEs are likely to be more readily mobilized during dissolution and recrystallization, it is hypothesized that LREEs are leached from type I anhydrite, resulting in the formation of type II anhydrite with LREE-depleted profiles.     

Neogene evaporites in desert volcanic environments: Atacama Desert, northern Chile

The Upper Miocene and Pliocene evaporite deposits of the Atacama Desert of northern Chile (Hilaricos and Soledad Formations) are among the few non‐marine evaporites in which aridity not only formed the deposits, but has also preserved them almost unaltered under near‐surface conditions. These deposits are largely composed of displacive Ca sulphate and halite together with minor amounts of glauberite, thenardite and polyhalite. However, at the base and top of these deposits, there are also beds of gypsum crystal pseudomorphs that originally formed as free‐growth forms within shallow brine bodies, rather than as displacive sediments. The halite is present as interstitial cement, displacive cubes and shallow‐water, bottom‐growth chevron crusts. Most of the calcium sulphate is presently anhydrite, pseudomorphous after gypsum, that was the primary depositional sulphate mineral. The secondary anhydrite formed under early diagenetic conditions after slight burial (some metres) resulting from the effect of strongly evolved pore brines. The anhydrite has been preserved without rehydration during late diagenetic and exhumation stages on account of the arid environment of the Atacama Desert. Both the Hilaricos and the Soledad Formations contain geochemical markers indicating that these Neogene evaporites had a largely non‐marine origin. Bromine content in the halite is very low (few p.p.m.), indicating neither a sedimentological relation with sea water nor the likelihood of direct recycling of prior marine halites. Moreover, the δ³⁴S of sulphates (+4·5‰ to +9‰) also reflects a non‐marine origin, with a strong volcanic influence, although some recycling of Mesozoic marine sulphates cannot be ruled out. δ³⁴S of dissolved sulphate from hot springs and streams in the area commonly displays positive values (+2‰ to +10‰). Leaching of oxidized sulphur and chlorine compounds from volcanoes and epithermal ore bodies, very common in the associated drainage areas, have been the main contribution to the accumulation of evaporites. The sedimentary and diagenetic evolution of the Hilaricos and Soledad evaporites (based on lithofacies analysis) provides information about the palaeohydrological conditions in the Central Depression of northern Chile during the Neogene. In addition, the diagenesis and exhumation history of these evaporites confirms the persistence of strongly arid conditions from Late Miocene until the present. A final phase of tectonism took place permitting the internal drainage to change and open to the sea, resulting in dissolution and removal of a significant portion of these deposits. Despite the extensive dissolution, the remaining evaporites have undergone little late exhumational hydration.     

Sedimentological and geochemical evidence to elucidate an evaporitic–carbonate paleoenvironment, Middle Miocene Red Sea coast, Egypt

Lithologic succession, microscopic examination as well as X-ray diffraction and chemical data revealed that the surface Middle Miocene evaporites of Wadi Quei are composed of anhydrite beds intercalated with carbonate and green shale, whilst the subsurface evaporites of Gemsa locality are composed of gypsum, anhydrite, carbonates and celestite with a rare amount of halite. The anhydrite is found to be formed diagenetically after gypsum. The carbonate is interpreted as having been of biogenic origin. The strong smell of H₂S and golden crystals of pyrite at Wadi Quei beds are indications of the biogenic action of sulphate-reducing bacteria in the presence of organic matter. It is suggested that the evaporite sequence which was deposited in a supratidal sabkha environment is characterized by alkaline-reducing conditions. The presence of nodular gypsum at Gemsa locality is probably deposited in a supratidal environment with oscillation of sea level.     

Multi-tracer investigation of groundwater residence time in a karstic aquifer: Bitter Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, New Mexico, USA

Several natural and anthropogenic tracers have been used to evaluate groundwater residence time within a karstic limestone aquifer in southeastern New Mexico, USA. Natural groundwater discharge occurs in the lower Pecos Valley from a region of karst springs, wetlands and sinkhole lakes at Bitter Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, on the northeast margin of the Roswell Artesian Basin. The springs and sinkholes are formed in gypsum bedrock that serves as a leaky confining unit for an artesian aquifer in the underlying San Andres limestone. Because wetlands on the Refuge provide habitat for threatened and endangered species, there is concern about the potential for contamination by anthropogenic activity in the aquifer recharge area. Estimates of the time required for groundwater to travel through the artesian aquifer vary widely because of uncertainties regarding karst conduit flow. A better understanding of groundwater residence time is required to make informed decisions about management of water resources and wildlife habitat at Bitter Lakes. Results indicate that the artesian aquifer contains a significant component of water recharged within the last 10–50 years, combined with pre-modern groundwater originating from deeper underlying aquifers, some of which may be indirectly sourced from the high Sacramento Mountains to the west.     

Origin and evolution of a salty gypsum/anhydrite karst spring: the case of Poiano (Northern Apennines, Italy)

Poiano is the largest karst spring of the Emilia Romagna region (northern Italy). It drains an aquifer of unique properties composed of anhydrite with halite lenses at depth and gypsum at the surface (both with high NaCl content). Hydrogeological research has been undertaken using automatically recorded hourly data on temperature, electrical conductivity, and water level. Water feeding the Poiano spring is restricted within the gypsum/anhydrite outcrop between the Lucola, Sologno and Secchia rivers. Karstification in the Upper Secchia Valley only concerns the gypsum rocks mainly present along the border and in the shallower parts of the sulfate outcrop and does not appear to occur at depth. Data strongly support the hypothesis that the salt content in the spring water derives from active halokinetic movements. For the first time, the fundamental hydrogeological importance of the anhydrite part inside the sulfate rocks is demonstrated. If gypsum prevails over anhydrite the karst drainage network can extend deep into the rocks following a network of fractures and fissures. Instead, if in the deep parts of the aquifer anhydrite prevails over gypsum, the karst evolution cannot take place at depth and the structure of the underground drainage paths only follows near-surface paths in gypsum.     

Speleothems in gypsum caves and their paleoclimatological significance

This article highlights the relationship between speleothems growing inside gypsum caves and the particular climate that existed during their development. Speleothems in gypsum caves normally consist of calcium carbonate (calcite) or calcium sulphate (gypsum) and the abundance of such deposits greatly differs from zone to zone. Observations carried out over the last 20 years in gypsum caves subjected to very different climates (Italy, Spain, New Mexico, northern Russia, Cuba, Argentina) highlight wide variation in their cave deposits. In arid or semi-arid climates, the speleothems are mainly composed of gypsum, whilst in temperate, humid or tropical regions, carbonate formations are largely predominant. In polar zones no speleothems develop. These mineralogical details could be useful paleoclimatic indicators of climate change. The interpretation proposed is based on the fact that in gypsum karst the kind of speleothems deposited is determined by competition between the two principal mechanisms that cause precipitation of calcite and gypsum. These mechanisms are completely different: calcite speleothem evolution is mainly controlled by CO₂ diffusion, while gypsum deposits develop mostly due to evaporation. Therefore, the prevalence of one kind of speleothem over the other, and the relationship between the solution–precipitation processes of calcite and gypsum, may provide evidence of a specific paleoclimate. Additionally, other non-common deposits in gypsum caves like moonmilk, cave rafts and dolomite speleothems can be used as markers for the prevalence of long, dry periods in humid areas, seasonal changes in climate, or rainfall trends in some gypsum areas. Moreover, the dating of gypsum speleothems could contribute paleoclimatic data relating to dry periods when calcite speleothems are not deposited. In contrast, the dating of calcite speleothems in gypsum caves could identify former wet periods in arid zones.     

Sulphuric acid geofluid contribution on thermal carbonate coastal springs (Italy)

Hypogenic caves, developed by sulphuric acid speleogenesis, are known all over the world among which the Santa Cesarea Terme caves have been included. They are four submerged caves, located along a coastal carbonate sector in Southern Italy and hosting the outflow of coastal springs of thermal mixed waters (from 21 to 33 °C). These waters derive from the mixing of three water end members: the fresh pure groundwater of a wide karstic aquifer, the deep sulphur thermal water and the seawater. This cave system represents an almost unique case of hypogenic sea caves in carbonate environment. The thermal mixed waters have a different effect on the surrounding rocks of the caves, influencing the sulphuric acid speleogenetic process within the whole cave system. To understand the complex and overlapping natural processes acting on the development of these coastal caves, a multidisciplinary study has been carried out. This study has integrated all the data resulting from different methods and technologies, merging morphology, structural geology, hydrogeology, hydrogeochemistry and mineralogy. This multidisciplinary study has allowed to define the main geochemical processes acting within these caves, including the cave development and the formation of the mineral concretions. After the introduction of H₂S in the thermal waters, formed by the reduction of sulphates in the sedimentary deposits crossed at depth in the offshore, the oxidation occurs within the caves, producing sulphuric acid. Favoured by upwelling deep-seated thermal flows, this acid dissolves the limestone, with condensation corrosion process that involve replacement of limestone rock with gypsum. This process has resulted to be more active and remarkable within the Gattulla Cave, one of the Santa Cesarea Terme sea caves.     

Meganodular anhydritization: a new mechanism of gypsum to anhydrite conversion (Palaeogene–Neogene,Ebro Basin,North‐east Spain)

A number of Palaeogene to Early Neogene gypsum units are located along the southern margins of the Ebro Basin (North‐east Spain). These marginal units, of Eocene to Lower Miocene age, formed and accumulated deposits of Ca sulphates (gypsum and anhydrite) in small, shallow saline lakes of low ionic concentration. The lakes were fed mainly by ground water from deep regional aquifers whose recharge areas were located in the mountain chains bounding the basin, and these aquifers recycled and delivered Ca sulphate and Na chloride from Mesozoic evaporites (Triassic and Lower Jurassic). In outcrop, the marginal sulphate units are largely secondary gypsum after anhydrite and exhibit meganodules (from 0·5 to >5 m across) and large irregular masses. In the sub‐surface these meganodules and masses are mostly made of anhydrite, which replaced the original primary gypsum. The isotopic composition (11·1 to 17·4‰ for δ¹⁸O_VSMOW; 10·7 to 15·3‰ for δ³⁴S_VCDT) of secondary gypsum in this meganodular facies indicates that the precursor anhydrite derived from in situ replacement of an initial primary gypsum. As a result of ascending circulation of deep regional fluid flows through the gypsum units near the basin margins, the gypsum was partly altered to anhydrite within burial conditions from shallow to moderate depths (from some metres to a few hundred metres?). At such depths, the temperatures and solute contents of these regional flows exceeded those of the ground water today. These palaeoflows became anhydritizing solutions and partly altered the subsiding gypsum units before they became totally transformed by deep burial anhydritization. The characteristics of the meganodular anhydritization (for example, size and geometry of the meganodules and irregular masses, spatial arrangement, relations with the associated lithologies and the depositional cycles, presence of an enterolithic vein complex and palaeogeographic distribution) are compared with those of the anhydritization generated both in a sabkha setting or under deep burial conditions, and a number of fundamental differences are highlighted.     

Simulation of the development of gypsum maze caves

The development of gypsum maze caves under artesian conditions has been simulated. The numerical model simulations show that the evolution of maze caves in this type of setting requires structural preferences such as laterally extended fissure networks in a horizon of the gypsum layer. Without any structural preferences vertical shafts rather than maze caves are predicted to develop. The most important stage for the development of horizontal caves under artesian conditions is found to be the initial karstification period. During this period the structure of the mature conduit system is established. The solutional enlargement of conduits is spatially extended, total dissolution rates are higher than the later ones.     

扬子地台西缘铅锌矿床分布规律及矿源层探讨

为探索川滇黔相邻区铅锌矿床之成因规律,提升成矿理论认识及预测找矿效果,通过对区内铅锌矿床分布规律研究得出如下认识:1)发现矿床(点)之集群分布趋势,据此将成矿区域划分为3个矿集区;2)统计发现,震旦系和石炭系具有较高的成矿机率(51.57%),灯影组和摆佐组汇聚了区域80.98%的金属量;3)构造单元分级控制了成矿单元展布,而矿集区与二级构造单元之间具有不完全的对等性,矿集区Ⅰ、Ⅱ由康滇地轴和龙门山拗陷及二者向上扬子区域跨越地带联合控制;4)根据菱(赤)铁矿与铅锌矿空间耦合,以及菱(赤)铁矿伴生铅锌元素、铅锌矿物含量均较高等现象,论证了在盆地演化早期,古陆边缘拗陷带(或海盆)内之次级单元代表了浅海环境之低能较深水凹(断)陷或海湾环境,沉积了古生界志留系兰多维列统特列奇阶至下石炭统德坞阶和中元古界下昆阳群(会理群)两套含铁建造,形成了区域Pb、Zn成矿金属元素的初始富集,并于成岩-后生期经热液流体循环改造而成矿,含铁建造提供了成矿的主要矿质来源;5)本区成矿物质硫源-膏盐层主要赋存于灯影组和摆佐组下伏地层以及寒武系多个层位;6)矿源层、硫源共同决定了矿集区以及层控的形成机制,并成为控制其分布的决定性因素。     

膏盐层在Ni-Cu-PGE硫化物矿床成矿中的作用 ——以俄罗斯诺里尔斯克矿床为例

与基性-超基性侵入体有关的Ni-Cu-PGE硫化物矿床是镍-铜-铂族元素矿床的最重要类型。传统观点认为,Ni-Cu-PGE硫化物矿床是由成矿岩浆分异演化、熔离形成的,与围岩性质关系不大。实际上,大部分基性-超基性岩浆是硫化物不饱和的,在岩浆自身演化过程中难以聚集大量硫化物而形成有经济价值的大型高品位NiCu-PGE硫化物矿床。因此,壳源硫的加入是基性-超基性岩浆中硫化物浓度达到过饱和,熔离形成Ni-Cu-PGE硫化物矿床的关键。膏盐层是富含石膏等硫酸盐(SO24-)的蒸发沉积建造,除SO24-外,还富含Cl-、CO23-、Na+、K+等盐类物质,在自然界分布广、面积大,是地壳中重要的硫源层和氧化障。但膏盐层在Ni-Cu-PGE硫化物矿床中的作用长期被忽视,制约了Ni-Cu-PGE硫化物矿床成矿找矿理论的发展。文章以世界最大的俄罗斯诺里尔斯克Ni-CuPGE硫化物矿床为例,介绍了膏盐层与矿床分布的空间关系、石膏等硫酸盐矿物在矿床和蚀变围岩中的分布、成矿元素和硫同位素组成特征及变化规律,阐明了膏盐层在成矿中的作用和控矿机理。膏盐(SO24-)的加入,可以大幅度提高成矿系统的氧逸度,将成矿岩浆中Fe2+氧化成Fe3+,形成铁氧化物,SO24-自身被还原,向成矿系统提供还原硫S2-,与Cu2+、Ni2+等结合,形成铜镍硫化物等,使基性-超基性成矿岩浆由硫化物不饱和变为过饱和,形成硫化物小液滴,在岩浆房经聚集-熔离-富集,形成岩浆型Ni-Cu-PGE硫化物矿床。除膏盐层外,富含硫化物的地层也是形成Ni-Cu-PGE硫化物矿床的重要硫源层。     

Lower Miocene gypsum palaeokarst in the Madrid Basin (central Spain): dissolution diagenesis, morphological relics and karst end-products

Abstract The Miocene sedimentary record of the Madrid Basin displays several examples of palaeokarstic surfaces sculpted within evaporite formations. One of these palaeokarstic surfaces represents the boundary between two main lithostratigraphic units, the Miocene Lower and Intermediate units of the Madrid Basin. The palaeokarst formed in lacustrine gypsum deposits of Aragonian age and corresponds to a surface palaeokarst (epikarst), further buried by terrigenous deposits of the overlying unit. Karst features are recognized up to 5·5 m beneath the gypsum surface. Exokarst and endokarst zones are distinguished by the spatial distribution of solution features, i.e. karren, dolines, pits, conduits and caves, and collapse breccias, sedimentary fills and alteration of the original gypsum across the karst profiles. The development of the gypsum palaeokarst began after drying out of a saline lake basin, as supported by recognition of root tubes, later converted to cylindrical and funnel‐shaped pits, at the top of the karstic profiles. The existence of a shallow water table along with low hydraulic gradients was the main factor controlling the karst evolution, and explains the limited depth reached by both exokarst and endokarst features. Synsedimentary fill of the karst system by roughly laminated to massive clay mudstone with subordinate carbonate and clastic gypsum reflects a punctuated sedimentation regime probably related to episodic heavy rainfalls typical of arid to semi‐arid climates. Duration of karstification is of the order of several thousands of years, which is consistent with previous statements that gypsum karstification can develop rapidly over geologically short time periods.     

Evaporative systems and diagenetic patterns in the Calatayud Basin (Miocene,central Spain)

This paper concerns the evaporite units, depositional systems, cyclicity, diagenetic products and anhydritization patterns of the Calatayud Basin (nonmarine, Miocene, central Spain). In outcrop, the sulphate minerals of these shallow lacustrine evaporites consist of primary and secondary gypsum, the latter originating from the replacement of anhydrite and glauberite. In the evaporative systems of this basin, gypsiferous marshes of low salinity can be distinguished from central, saline lakes of higher salinity. In the gypsiferous marsh facies, the dominant, massive, bioturbated gypsum was partly replaced by synsedimentary chert nodules and siliceous crusts. In the saline lake facies, either cycles of gypsiferous lutite‐laminated gypsarenite or irregular alternations of laminated gypsum, nodular and banded glauberite, thenardite and nodular anhydrite precipitated. Early replacement of part of the glauberite by anhydrite also occurred. Episodes of subaerial exposure are represented by: (1) pedogenic carbonates (with nodular magnesite) and gypsiferous crusts composed of poikilitic crystals; and (2) nodular anhydrite, which formed in a sabkha. Additionally, meganodular anhydrite occurs, which presumably precipitated from ascending, highly saline solutions. The timing of anhydritization was mainly controlled by the salinity of the pore solutions, and occurred from the onset of deposition to moderate burial. Locally, a thick (>200 m) sequence of gypsum cycles developed, which was probably controlled by climatic variation. A trend of upward‐decreasing salinity is deduced from the base to the top of the evaporite succession.     

Subaqueous artesian springs and associated spring pits in a Himalayan pond

Subaqueous, bowl-shaped depressions found in a Himalayan pond formed in an abandoned river channel in the Lingti Valley (Spiti, NW India) are spring pits (Quirke 1930 ). The occurrence of the spring pits is restricted to the western end of the pond, where coarse-grained, highly permeable alluvial fan material continues below lacustrine mud deposits. The spring pits formed by active vertical discharge of ground water from an underlying artesian alluvial fan aquifer, confined by the overlying fine-grained lacustrine sediments. The aquifer is continuously recharged by down-slope ground-water flow in the alluvial fan. These small artesian springs are comparable with much larger artesian springs described in the literature and a similar mechanism of formation is proposed. Some similarities in their shapes and mechanisms of formation may indicate that spring pits represent small, nearshore examples of pockmarks. The differences of these features, formed by persistent fluidization from short-lived seismic liquefaction processes, are discussed and the utility of the structures for palaeo-environmental and palaeo-ground-water interpretation is evaluated.     

Spectroscopic evidence of microbial organic matter in secondary mineral deposits at Naica Underground System (NUS) and the biological role in its mineralization

The Naica Underground System (NUS) hosts the largest gypsum crystals (>10 m in length and >1 m in width) ever found in natural caves; these are growing from conspicuous Fe-oxyhydroxide deposits that presumably were formed in processes controlled by microorganisms. In contrast to other studies where microbial participation is elucidated only from morphological textural characterization and total DNA sequencing, here, we report a comprehensive FTIR characterization of the conspicuous secondary mineral deposits in the NUS that provides physicochemical evidence suggesting that the NUS microbial communities contributed to the mineralization of the Fe-oxyhydroxides and gypsum at the NUS.FTIR analyses of gypsum and Fe-oxyhydroxides, as well as the mineral fraction dissolved in aqueous samples collected from different sites at NUS, reveal that such minerals are intimately associated with organic material, such as polysaccharides, phospholipids, proteins, and, to a minor extent, nucleic acids; suggesting that the formation of gypsum and Fe-oxyhydroxides at NUS was microbially mediated. Our results also provide compelling evidence that FTIR is a valuable tool for the characterization of biomineralization processes and should be used as a complement to morphological and massive DNA analyses.     

鄂尔多斯盆地中东部奥陶系马家沟组马五6亚段硬石膏产状类型与成因*

鄂尔多斯盆地中东部奥陶系马家沟组马五₆亚段硬石膏产状类型多样,基于系统的宏观与微观岩石学分析,识别并区分出星散状(A1型)、纹层状(A2型)、致密块状(A3型)、结核状或团块状(A4型)、鸡雏状或角砾状(A5型)等硬石膏产状类型。单井高频旋回和微相分析表明,马五₆亚段发育与潮坪、潟湖、鲕粒滩、砂屑滩、微生物丘等有关的5种高频向上变浅序列,硬石膏的产状类型、产出位置和分布形式等与向上变浅序列有很好的耦合关系。A1型和A2型硬石膏发育于高频向上变浅序列的下部和中部,主要与膏云质或云膏质潟湖相关,属于潟湖相原生化学沉积成因。A3型硬石膏分布于高频向上变浅序列的上部,受膏质潟湖控制,也属于原生化学沉积成因。经典的结核状硬石膏(A4-1)呈随机分布形式产于潮坪沉积序列,为成岩期交代作用或者膏化作用成因,与传统萨布哈交代成因的膏质结核相似。A4-2型硬石膏主要出现在颗粒岩和微生物岩中,主要由富含CaSO₄的下渗卤水在溶蚀孔洞中沉淀形成;A5型硬石膏发育于向上变浅序列的上部和顶部,与高频暴露有关,为准同生期以溶蚀—充填为主的岩溶改造成因。发育完整的单个高频旋回,大致经历了高频快速海侵早期、高频快速海侵晚期至缓慢海退早期、高频缓慢海退晚期和高频海退末期暴露4个演化阶段,形成了与之耦合的海相碳酸盐岩与硬石膏共生序列。这些认识将对马家沟组沉积古环境的再认识具有重要的参考意义。     

鄂尔多斯盆地中东部奥陶系马家沟组马五6亚段硬石膏产状类型与成因*

鄂尔多斯盆地中东部奥陶系马家沟组马五₆亚段硬石膏产状类型多样,基于系统的宏观与微观岩石学分析,识别并区分出星散状(A1型)、纹层状(A2型)、致密块状(A3型)、结核状或团块状(A4型)、鸡雏状或角砾状(A5型)等硬石膏产状类型。单井高频旋回和微相分析表明,马五₆亚段发育与潮坪、潟湖、鲕粒滩、砂屑滩、微生物丘等有关的5种高频向上变浅序列,硬石膏的产状类型、产出位置和分布形式等与向上变浅序列有很好的耦合关系。A1型和A2型硬石膏发育于高频向上变浅序列的下部和中部,主要与膏云质或云膏质潟湖相关,属于潟湖相原生化学沉积成因。A3型硬石膏分布于高频向上变浅序列的上部,受膏质潟湖控制,也属于原生化学沉积成因。经典的结核状硬石膏(A4-1)呈随机分布形式产于潮坪沉积序列,为成岩期交代作用或者膏化作用成因,与传统萨布哈交代成因的膏质结核相似。A4-2型硬石膏主要出现在颗粒岩和微生物岩中,主要由富含CaSO₄的下渗卤水在溶蚀孔洞中沉淀形成;A5型硬石膏发育于向上变浅序列的上部和顶部,与高频暴露有关,为准同生期以溶蚀—充填为主的岩溶改造成因。发育完整的单个高频旋回,大致经历了高频快速海侵早期、高频快速海侵晚期至缓慢海退早期、高频缓慢海退晚期和高频海退末期暴露4个演化阶段,形成了与之耦合的海相碳酸盐岩与硬石膏共生序列。这些认识将对马家沟组沉积古环境的再认识具有重要的参考意义。