What controls dead-ice melting under different climate conditions? A discussion

In the geological record, hummocky dead-ice moraines represent the final product of the melt-out of dead-ice. Processes and rates of dead-ice melting in ice-cored moraines and at debris-covered glaciers are commonly believed to be governed by climate and debris-cover properties. Here, backwasting rates from 14 dead-ice areas are assessed in relation to mean annual air temperature, mean summer air temperature, mean annual precipitation, mean summer precipitation, and annual sum of positive degree days. The highest correlation was found between backwasting rate and mean annual air temperature. However, the correlation between melt rates and climate parameters is low, stressing that processes and topography play a major role in governing the rates of backwasting. The rates of backwasting from modern glacial environments should serve as input to de-icing models for ancient dead-ice areas in order to assess the mode and duration of deposition.A challenge for future explorations of dead-ice environments is to obtain long-term records of field-based monitoring of melt progression. Furthermore, many modern satellite-borne sensors have high potentials for recordings of multi-temporal Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) for detection and quantification of changes in dead-ice environments. In recent years, high-accuracy DEMs from airborne laser scanning altimetry (LiDAR) are emerging as an additional data source. However, time series of high-resolution aerial photographs remain essential for both visual inspection and high-resolution stereographic DEM production.     

Origin and de-icing of multiple generations of ice-cored moraines at Brúarjökull, Iceland

Mature dead-ice has been overridden repeatedly by the Brúarjökull glacier, and multiple generations of ice-cored landforms occur, with ice cores originating at least from glacier surges in 1963-1964, 1890 and 1810. Ice-cores are located on the proximal slopes of end moraines and in the valleys, as ice-cored outwash and eskers, ice-cored drumlins and ice-cored moraine patches. This dictates that the sediments and internal architecture might not always match their end-products as de-icing progresses. Analysis of multi-temporal aerial photographs integrated with annual field measurements showed that the time required for a total de-icing in the forefield exceeds the duration of the quiescent phases between the surges, even in the current climate at the limit of permafrost. Quantifying melting progression suggests that complete de-icing of ice-cored landforms is not likely to occur. The mean de-icing rate is c. 9.8 cm/yr in 1890 ice-cored moraines, and c. 17.7 cm/yr in 1963-1964 ice-cored moraines. Backwasting of ice-cored slopes (c. 30 cm/yr) is the fastest melt process. Long-term downwasting rates derived from multi-temporal digital elevation models provide a superior insight into the impact of multiple glacier surges on the formation of dead-ice moraines in front of Brúarjökull.     

The final phase of dead-ice moraine development: processes and sediment architecture, Kötlujökull, Iceland

Consecutive phases of de-icing of ice-cored moraines and the formation of dead-ice moraine were monitored over a 4-year period at the terminus of the Kötlujökull glacier, Iceland. Particularly, the transition from partially ice-cored moraine with isolated dead-ice blocks to the ice-free landscape receives attention in this paper in order to link the final melting processes to the architecture of the sedimentary end product. In the current humid sub-polar climate of south Iceland de-icing of partially ice-cored moraines results chiefly from melting along the bottom surface of ice-cores with an annual average rate of 25 cm. The final de-icing is associated with an interrelated group of re-sedimentation processes and surface features. Series of sinkholes evolve at the toe of dead-ice blocks, which initiate retrogressive rotational sliding or backslumping of the ice-cored slopes and the formation of distinct edges and fractures in the adjacent basins. Although backslumping is the dominant process in this phase of re-sedimentation, structures resulting from this process are rarely recognized in the ice-free landscape. As ice-cores gradually diminish the effect of the latest re-sedimentation events will overprint or destroy most existing sedimentary characteristics. Thus, in the ice-free landscape, structures mainly related to the formation of sinkholes and fractures remain imprinted on the sediment succession. Generally, no inversion of the topography occurs during the final phase of de-icing. The overall topography recognized in the late phase of the fully ice-cored terrain is merely lowered and the amplitude of the relief reduced as de-icing progresses. The sediment architecture of the ice-free landscape is characterized by heterogeneous and often slumped diamict sediments with variable thickness and lateral distribution; clast orientation is related to the direction of slopes, and boulders are found in isolated groups or in linear arrangements.     

唐古拉山东段布加岗日地区小冰期以来的冰川变化研究

对唐古拉山东段布加岗日地区小冰期以来的冰川变化资料进行了分析,结果表明,该地区小冰期最盛时(即15世纪)冰川总面积和总储量分别为241.46km²和19.6282km³,目前其面积和储量分别已减少了23.7%和15.1%,并且自小冰期以来有184条长度大约为0.6km的小冰川已消失.该地区各冰川面积和储量的绝对变化量随着冰川规模的增大而增大,而其相对变化百分数却是随着冰川规模的增大而减小.不同方位冰川小冰期以来的平均面积萎缩量、平均末端退缩量和平均末端高程上升量均表明,南坡冰川变化的绝对量比北坡的大.这说明在同一气候变化背景下,该地区南坡冰川对于气候变化的响应比北坡冰川敏感.小冰期以来该地区冰川雪线上升了约90m,这大致相当于气温上升约0.6℃.     

西天山托木尔峰南麓大型山谷冰川冰舌区消融特征分析

基于对托木尔峰南麓托木尔型山谷冰川的野外考察和典型冰川的定位观测,对冰面被表碛广泛覆盖的所谓“托木尔型”冰川冰舌区表碛与冰面消融的关系进行了研究. 结果表明：表碛对冰面消融、冰川水文过程、冰川变化等均具有重要影响,当表碛厚度超过3 cm时,表碛对冰面消融就产生明显抑制作用,且随着厚度增加,冰面消融显明减弱. 科其喀尔冰川表面的观测表明,由末端向上,表碛厚度逐渐减薄. 受表碛影响,科其喀尔冰川区最大的消融量出现在海拔3 800~3 900 m之间、表碛物厚度小于10 cm的区域内;冰川消融强度由此向上随着海拔的升高而下降,向下随表碛厚度的增大而减弱. 冰面湖的发育是表碛覆盖冰川的又一主要特征,湖水对冰面的融蚀和快速排泄成为冰面产汇流的主要过程. 科其喀尔冰川研究表明,两三个冰面湖排泄形成的融蚀冰量就相当于冰川末端退缩造成的冰量损失. 因此,冰面湖等热喀斯特地形的形成、扩张融蚀、融穿排泄、形成湖区低地,这一周而复始的过程不仅是其主要消融方式之一,而且也强烈的影响着冰川水文及冰川变化. 托木尔峰南麓地区大型冰川变化主要以厚度减薄为主,而不是像大多数冰川显著的变化主要表现在末端和面积减少方面.     

Relationships between glacier and rock glacier in the Maritime Alps, Schiantala Valley, Italy

In the Schiantala Valley of the Maritime Alps, the relationship between a till-like body and a contiguous rock glacier has been analyzed using geomorphologic, geoelectric and ice-petrographic methodologies. DC resistivity tomographies undertaken in the till and in the rock glacier show the presence of buried massive ice and ice-rich sediments, respectively. Ice samples from a massive ice outcrop show spherical gas inclusions and equidimensional ice crystals that are randomly orientated, confirming the typical petrographic characteristics of sedimentary ice. The rock glacier formation began after a phase of glacier expansion about 2550 ± 50 ¹⁴C yr BP. Further ice advance during the Little Ice Age (LIA) overrode the rock glacier root and caused partial shrinkage of the pre-existing permafrost. Finally, during the 19th and 20th centuries, the glacial surface became totally debris covered. Geomorphological and geophysical methods combined with analyses of ice structure and fabric can effectively interpret the genesis of landforms in an environment where glaciers and permafrost interact. Ice petrography proved especially useful for differentiating ice of past glaciers versus ice formed under permafrost conditions. These two mechanisms of ice formation are common in the Maritime Alps where many sites of modern rock glaciers were formerly occupied by LIA glaciers.     

Lake stratigraphy implies an 80 000 yr delayed melting of buried dead ice in northern Russia

Sediment cores from lakes Kormovoye and Oshkoty in the glaciated region of the Pechora Lowland, northern Russia, reveal sediment gravity flow deposits overlain by lacustrine mud and gyttja. The sediments were deposited mainly during melting of buried glacier ice beneath the lakes. In Lake Kormovoye, differential melting of dead ice caused the lake bottom to subside at different places at different times, resulting in sedimentation and erosion occurring only some few metres apart and at shifting locations, as further melting caused inversion of the lake bottom. Basal radiocarbon dates from the two lakes, ranging between 13 and 9 ka, match with basal dates from other lakes in the Pechora Lowland as well as melting of ice‐wedges. This indicates that buried glacier ice has survived for ca. 80 000 years from the last glaciation of this area at 90 ka until about 13 ka when a warmer climate caused melting of permafrost and buried glacier ice, forming numerous lakes and a fresh‐looking glacial landscape. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Formation and disintegration of a high-arctic ice-cored moraine complex, Scott Turnerbreen, Svalbard

Englacial debris structures, morphology and sediment distribution at the frontal part and at the proglacial area of the Scott Turnerbreen glacier have been studied through fieldwork and aerial photograph interpretation. The main emphasis has been on processes controlling the morphological development of the proglacial area. Three types of supraglacial ridges have been related to different types of englacial debris bands. We suggest that the sediments were transported in thrusts, along flow lines and in englacial meltwater channels prior to, and during a surge in, the 1930s, before the glacier turned cold. Melting-out of englacial debris and debris that flows down the glacier front has formed an isolating debris cover on the glacier surface, preventing further melting. As the glacier wasted, the stagnant, debris-covered front became separated from the glacier and formed icecored moraine ridges. Three moraine ridges were formed outside the present ice-front. The further glacier wastage formed a low-relief proglacial area with debris-flow deposits resting directly on glacier ice. Melting of this buried ice initiated a second phase of slides and debris flows with a flow direction independent of the present glacier surface. The rapid disintegration of the proglacial morphology is mainly caused by slides and stream erosion that uncover buried ice and often cause sediments to be transported into the main river and out of the proglacial area. Inactive stream channels are probably one of the morphological elements that have the best potential for preservation in a wasting ice-cored moraine complex and may indicate former ice-front positions.     

Regional modelling of permafrost thicknesses over the past 130 ka: implications for permafrost development in Great Britain

The greatest thicknesses of permafrost in Great Britain most likely occurred during the last glacial–interglacial cycle, as this is when some of the coldest conditions occurred during the last 1 000 000 years. The regional development of permafrost across Great Britain during the last glacial–interglacial cycle was modelled from a ground surface temperature history based on mean annual temperatures and the presence of glacier ice. To quantify the growth and decay of permafrost, modelling was undertaken at six locations across Great Britain that represent upland glaciated, lowland glaciated, upland unglaciated and lowland unglaciated conditions. Maximum predicted permafrost depths derived in this academic study range between several tens of metres to over 100 m depending upon various factors including elevation, glacier ice cover, geothermal heat flux and air temperature. In general, the greatest maximum permafrost thicknesses occur at upland glaciated locations, with minimum thickness at lowland sites. Current direct geological evidence for permafrost is from surface or shallow processes, mainly associated with the active layer. Further research is recommended to identify the imprint of freeze/thaw conditions in permanently frozen porous rocks from beneath the active layer.     

Formation of glaciolacustrine Late Pleistocene end moraines in the Tasman Valley,New Zealand

Detailed examination of the Tekapo Formation in the Tasman Valley, New Zealand has identified 20 facies, and five facies associations. These associations are delta foresets and bottomsets, sediment density flows, ice-contact lake sediments with ice-rafted debris and resedimentation deposits, and outwash gravels. Interpretation of the sediment-landform associations informed by observations at modern glacier termini suggests that the Late Pleistocene Tekapo Formation moraines have been formed by downwasting of a more expanded Tasman Glacier. During the early stages of glacier retreat, ponds on the glacier surface develop into thermokarst lakes which enlarge and coalesce to form a large supraglacial lake. Continued downwasting causes the lake outlet river to entrench into the impounding latero-frontal ice-cored moraine, lowering the lake level. This exposes lake-bottom sediments and forms shorelines on the proximal slopes of the ice-cored moraine. As the ice-cored moraine melts, these lake sediments are deformed and deposited against the Mt. John moraine. The observations and interpretations reported here suggest the Late Pleistocene end moraine is a constructional feature not a structural (glaciotectonic) feature as suggested by previous studies.     

Moraine development at a small High‐Arctic valley glacier: Rieperbreen,Svalbard

Ice‐cored lateral and frontal moraine complexes, formed at the margin of the small, land‐based Rieperbreen glacier, central Svalbard, have been investigated through field observations and interpretations of aerial photographs (1936, 1961 and 1990). The main focus has been on the stratigraphical and dynamic development of these moraines as well as the disintegration processes. The glacier has been wasting down since the ‘Little Ice Age’ (LIA) maximum, and between 1936 and 1990 the glacier surface was lowered by 50–60 m and the front retreated by approximately 900 m. As the glacier wasted, three moraine ridges developed at the front, mainly as melting out of sediments from debris‐rich foliation and debris‐bands formed when the glacier was polythermal, probably during the LIA maximum. The disintegration of the moraines is dominated by wastage of buried ice, sediment gravity‐flows, meltwater activity and some frost weathering. A transverse glacier profile with a northward sloping surface has developed owing to the higher insolation along the south‐facing ice margin. This asymmetric geometry also strongly affects the supraglacial drainage pattern. Lateral moraines have formed along both sides of the glacier, although the insolation aspect of the glacier has resulted in the development of a moraine 60 m high along its northern margin. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Limnology of the Klutlan moraines,Yukon Territory,Canada

Lakes of the Klutlan moraines originate by down-melting of stagnant ice under a mantle of rock debris and vegetation ranging from scattered herbs and shrubs on the younger moraines to multiple-generation closed spruce forest on the oldest moraines, which are 600–1200 yr old. Lakes on the youngest moraines are temporary, turbid with glacial silt, and marked by unstable ice-cored slopes. On older moraines most lakes have clear water and stable slopes. On the oldest moraines many lakes have brown water caused by dissolved humic materials derived from the thick forest floor, but even here some slopes are unstable because of continued melting of buried ice. Morainic lakes contain bicarbonate waters of moderate alkalinity and conductivity and low levels of nutrients. The highly diverse phytoplankton is dominated by chrysophytes and cryptomonads, with few diatoms. Extremely low values for phytoplankton biomass place most of the lakes in an “ultraoligotrophic” category. Zooplankton is dominated by copepods, which were found even in ice ponds only a few years old, and by the cladoceran Daphnia pulex. Surface-sediment samples contained a total of 16 species of chydorid Cladocera. Of these, Alonella excisa and Alona barbulata are apparently the pioneer species in the youngest lakes. Chydorus sphaericus only appears in lakes of the oldest moraines. A successional pattern is not conspicuous, however, partly because some of the lakes on the older moraines originated by recent collapse over buried ice. Lakes on the upland outside the dead-ice moraines yielded 39 species in the zooplankton. The distinctive assemblage on upland lakes may relate more to different water chemistry than to age.     

Wastage of the Klutlan ice-cored moraines,Yukon Territory,Canada

A series of ice-cored Neoglacial moraines at the terminus of the Klutlan Glacier covers an area of 90 km². Studies were made to determine empirically how long ice persisted in the Klutlan moraines and to develop models that can accurately predict wastage rates under current climatic conditions. A meltout curve based on climatological data reflects the sum of three melting processes: surficial melting, melting by lake water, and melting by geothermal heat. About 950 yr are required to melt 180 m of ice with a debris concentration of 1%, or about 1200 yr for a 1.5% debris load. Another meltout curve, based on seismic data, suggests total meltout in about 875 yr. When all geologic factors are considered, the empirical meltout curve is remarkably similar to that derived by considering the major heat-flux parameters. Meltout rates can be predicted if (1) the fundamental climatic parameters can be ascertained, and (2) the sediment concentration in the ice is known.     

祁连山西段小冰期以来的冰川变化研究

根据航空摄影相片、地形图、遥感影像数据,分析了祁连山西段自小冰期至1990年的冰川变化,得出该地区在小冰期至1956年间冰川面积减小幅度为16.9%,冰川储量减少了14.1%;1956-1990年间冰川仍以退缩为主,此时段冰川面积和储量减小量占1956年时相应量的10.3%和9.3%.分析认为冰川退缩主要与1956-1966年时段气温偏高、降水偏少有关,而且该流域区对应于1956-1966年间强负物质平衡的冰川退缩可能出现于1960年代中期至1970年代中期.     

喜马拉雅山珠穆朗玛峰北坡绒布冰川消融速率特征分析

根据1959年和2009年在喜马拉雅山珠穆朗玛峰北坡绒布冰川获得的冰川消融数据, 分析了该冰川消融速率变化特征.结果表明: 1) 在珠峰绒布冰川表碛覆盖区, 表碛厚度随海拔升高而降低. 2) 不同厚度表碛下的冰川消融速率差别较大; 当表碛厚度>8.5 cm时, 消融速率随表碛厚度的增加而减小; 促进冰川消融的表碛厚度阈值大于5 cm. 3) 从冰川消融速率的空间分布看, 绒布冰川大部分区域的消融速率<20 mm·d^-1, 最大消融速率出现在海拔5 400~5 450 m处. 4) 绒布冰川消融速率受表碛厚度和气温综合影响, 低海拔处表碛太厚, 高海拔处气温较低, 冰川消融在上述两海拔处均受抑制, 冰川消融速率较小; 在中海拔处, 表碛相对较薄, 气温相对较高, 冰川消融速率最大; 冰川日均消融速率与日均正积温正相关. 5) 喜马拉雅山南坡冰川消融速率大于北坡冰川消融速率.     

Role of debris cover to control specific ablation of adjoining Batal and Sutri Dhaka glaciers in Chandra Basin (Himachal Pradesh) during peak ablation season

As part of the on-going annual mass balance measurements on Batal and Sutri Dhaka glaciers, observations were made during peak ablation (August–September) season in 2013 to understand the response of debris covered and clean-ice (debris free) glacier surface to melting processes. Though, both the Batal and Sutri Dhaka glaciers have almost similar geographical disposition, Batal shows extensive debris cover (90% of the ablation area), while the latter is free from debris (only 5% of the ablation area). The thickness of debris in Batal glacier is inversely proportional to altitude, whereas Sutri Dhaka mostly experienced debris-free zone except snout area. Observation revealed that the vertical gradient of ablation rate in ablation area is contrastingly opposite in these two glaciers, reflecting significant control of debris thickness and their distribution over glacier surface on the ablation rates. While different thickness (2–100 cm) of debris have attenuated melting rates up to 70% of total melting, debris cover of <2 cm thickness has accelerated melting up to 10% of the total melting. Estimated melt ratio reveals that about 90% of the ablation area has experienced inhibited melting in Batal glacier, whereas only less than 5% ablation area of Sutri Dhaka has undergone inhibited melting. Comparison of topographical maps of 1962 with successive satellite images of the area demonstrates a terminus retreat of 373 ± 33.5 m and 579 ± 33.5 m for Batal and Sutri Dhaka glaciers for the period 1962–2013, respectively.     

冰川冰内及冰下水系研究综述

冰内及冰下水系的形成与演化具有时空变化性,对冰川汇水储水及径流过程产生影响,与之紧密联系的冰下水文过程(水力状况)与冰川运动、冰川侵蚀及冰川洪水形成等过程息息相关。冰内及冰下水系空间结构和形态复杂,且不同于一般喀斯特水文系统,具有明显的季节变化性,其空间分布和水力状况会因外界水体输入(降水和冰雪融水)的变化而改变。冰内及冰下水系的变化通过影响汇流对冰川融水的径流过程产生影响,冰川区一些溃决洪水事件的发生与冰内及冰下蓄水的突然释放有很大关系。冰川蓄排水还通过改变冰下水力条件来影响冰川运动,反之冰川运动不仅影响蓄排水过程的转换效率,且通过改变冰川消融强度(冰体向下游消融区输送速率的变化)影响冰川排水系统的空间分布范围。在气候变暖及冰川变化的背景下,研究冰内冰下水系演化的时空特征及其影响具有重要科学意义。综述了目前国内外针对冰川冰内及冰下水系相关研究的进展及主要成果,并对该领域的研究前景进行了展望。     

Little Ice Age advance and retreat sediment budgets for an outlet glacier in western Norway

Burki, V., Hansen, L., Fredin, O., Andersen, T. A., Beylich, A. A., Jaboyedoff, M., Larsen, E. & Tønnesen, J.‐ F. 2009: Little Ice Age advance and retreat sediment budgets for an outlet glacier in western Norway. Boreas, Vol. 39, pp. 551–566. 10.1111/j.1502‐3885.2009.00133.x. ISSN 0300‐9483 Bødalsbreen is an outlet glacier of the Jostedalsbreen Ice Field in western Norway. Nine moraine ridges formed during and after the maximum extent of the Little Ice Age (LIA). The stratigraphy of proglacial sediments in the Bødalen basin inside the LIA moraines is examined, and corresponding sediment volumes are calculated based on georadar surveys and seismic profiling. The total erosion rates (e_tot) by the glacier are determined for the periods AD 1650–1930 and AD 1930–2005 as 0.8 ± 0.4 mm/yr and 0.7 ± 0.3 mm/yr, respectively. These rates are based on the total amount of sediment delivered to the glacier margin. The values are almost one order of magnitude higher than total erosion rates previously calculated for Norwegian glaciers. This is explained by the large amount of pre‐existing sediment that was recycled by Bødalsbreen. Thus, the total erosion rate must be considered as a composite of eroded bedrock and of removed pre‐existing sediments. The total erosion rate is likely to vary with time owing to a decreasing volume of easily erodible, unconsolidated sediment and till under the glacier. A slight increase in the subglacial bedrock erosion is expected owing to the gradually increasing bedrock surface area exposed to subglacial erosion.     

Rock glaciers and block fields,review and new data

Tongue-shaped and lobate rock glaciers are recognized in most alpine regions today. For the tongue-shaped, two situations emerge: those with buried glacier ice (debris-covered glaciers) called ice-cored rock glaciers, and those with interstitial ice known as ice-cemented rock glaciers. Those with ice cores are revealed by depressions between rock glacier and headwall cliff (where a former glacier melted), longitudinal marginal and central meandering furrows, and collapse pits. Ice-cemented rock glaciers ordinarily do not possess these features. As applied to 18 rock glaciers in the Colorado Front Range, 11 of 12 east of the Continental Divide are ice-cored, 6 west of the Divide are ice-cemented. The majority of lobate rock glaciers in the Colorado Front Range are on the south sides of valleys, and, except for talus, are the most voluminous form of mass wasting. All those active and above treeline have characteristics common to all rock glaciers. In addition, they originate from talus, contain interstitial ice, move outward from valley walls at 1–6 cm/yr, and transport more debris as a process of erosion than heretofore realized. Block fields and block slopes, in polar and alpine regions, are thin accumulations of angular to subrounded blocks, on bedrock, weathered rock, or transported debris. They extend along slopes parallel to the contour. Block streams are similar but extend downslope normal to the contour and into valleys. They are made of interlocked blocks without interstitial detritus, but many have finer material deeper inside. The fabric of surface blocks indicates that motion most likely occurred during a periglacial time when interstitial debris, now washed or piped out, permitted movement of the whole deposit.     

基于SAR的表碛覆盖型冰川边界定位研究

使用光学图像进行表碛覆盖型冰川边界判断相对比较困难。采用日本高级陆地观测卫星（ALOS）携带的L波段相控阵型合成孔径雷达（PALSAR）数据的干涉相干对表碛覆盖型冰川边界进行判断,并使用ALOS PALSAR数据的特征匹配方法获得表面流速进行验证分析,发现公格尔山区5Y663D0009冰川表碛覆盖区呈现高相干性且运动速度十分缓慢,表明该表碛区域可能已经演化成非活动区;而该冰川中碛覆盖区则表现出低相干性,运动速度比较高（5 m/a）,表明相干性是有效的判断依据,利用PALSAR数据相干性及获得的表面流速可以区分表碛覆盖型冰川活动与非活动区域,使气候波动情景下该类型冰川的动态变化监测成为可能并对该方法的可靠性与不确定性进行了探讨。