Earth2014: 1 arc-min shape,topography, bedrock and ice-sheet models – Available as gridded data and degree-10,800 spherical harmonics

Since the release of the ETOPO1 global Earth topography model through the US NOAA in 2009, new or significantly improved topographic data sets have become available over Antarctica, Greenland and parts of the oceans. Here, we present a suite of new 1′ (arc-min) models of Earth’s topography, bedrock and ice-sheets constructed as a composite from up-to-date topography models: Earth2014. Our model suite relies on SRTM30_PLUS v9 bathymetry for the base layer, merged with SRTM v4.1 topography over the continents, Bedmap2 over Antarctica and the new Greenland bedrock topography (GBT v3). As such, Earth2014 provides substantially improved information of bedrock and topography over Earth’s major ice sheets, and more recent bathymetric depth data over the oceans, all merged into readily usable global grids. To satisfy multiple applications of global elevation data, Earth2014 provides different representations of Earth’s relief. These are grids of (1) the physical surface, (2) bedrock (Earth’s relief without water and ice masses), (3) bedrock and ice (Earth without water masses), (4) ice sheet thicknesses, (5) rock-equivalent topography (ice and water masses condensed to layers of rock) as mass representation. These models have been transformed into ultra-high degree spherical harmonics, yielding degree 10,800 series expansions of the Earth2014 grids as input for spectral modelling techniques. As further variants, planetary shape models were constructed, providing distances between relief points and the geocenter. The paper describes the input data sets, the development procedures applied, the resulting gridded and spectral representations of Earth2014, external validation results and possible applications. The Earth2014 model suite is freely available via http://ddfe.curtin.edu.au/models/Earth2014/.     

超大速滑场地制冰排管形态的高精度快速检测

国家速滑馆为全球首个采用CO₂跨临界直冷制冰的冬奥速度滑冰场馆,冰面约1.2万m²,为精确控制冰面温度、厚度和稳定性等,其制冰排管的高精度安装非常重要。传统测量方法通过30%的抽查,以离散抽样检查评估排管整体情况,盲目性高且工作效率低;而采用三维激光点云数据可提取每根排管的空间位置信息,更全面、高效地检测制冷排管的安装情况。本文提出基于多靶球棱镜的三维激光作业方式,突破了在复杂施工环境下高定位精度点云数据的有效获取,并提出排管的翘曲检测法和平行度检测法,可以高精准地实现制冰排管的检测工作,为国家速滑馆的建设和运维提供重要依据,对于特异性建筑施工检测具有借鉴意义。     

南极冰盖部分消融对海平面的影响

本文假设地球具球对称、完全弹性和各向同性，推导了冰融相对海平面变化方程，采用汪汉胜等（１９９６）根据ＰＲＥＭ（１９８１）模型计算的地表弹性负荷勒夫数，估算了在今后５０年内，当南极冰盖消融１０米时所产生的全球海平面变化     

Velocity of surface ice flow on amery ice shelf determined with PPP

The main activities in the joint expedition between CHINARE and ANARE on Amery ice shelf are introduced. Five-day continuous GPS observation data collected on the site which locates at the frontal part of Amery ice shelf was processed with precise point positioning (PPP) technology based on precise products from IGS. Velocity of the surface ice flow on Amery can be derived from the PPP solution. Preliminary result shows that the surface ice flow velocity of the site is 2.25 meters per day, the motion direction is northeast-ward. Semidiurnal oceanic tide and diurnal oceanic tide signal of that site can be recovered from the height variation series of PPP solution. These above solutions can be used to the consequent mass balance calculation.     

Velocity of surface ice flow on amery ice shelf determined with PPP

The main activities in the joint expedition between CHINARE and ANARE on Amery ice shelf are introduced. Five-day continuous GPS observation data collected on the site which locates at the frontal part of Amery ice shelf was processed with precise point positioning （PPP） technology based on precise products from IGS. Velocity of the surface ice flow on Amery can be derived from the PPP solution. Preliminary result shows that the surface ice flow velocity of the site is 2.25 meters per day, the motion direction is northeastward. Semidiurnal oceanic tide and diurnal oceanic tide signal of that site can be recovered from the height variation series of PPP solution. These above solutions can be used to the consequent mass balance calculation.     

Fluvial morphometry of supraglacial river networks on the southwest Greenland Ice Sheet

Extensive, complex supraglacial river networks form on the southwest Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) surface each melt season. These networks are the dominant pathways for surface meltwater transport on this part of the ice sheet, but their fluvial morphometry has received little study. This paper utilizes high-resolution (2 m) WorldView-1/2 images, digital elevation models, and GIS tools to present a detailed morphometric characterization (river number, river length, Strahler stream order, width, depth, bifurcation ratio, braiding index, drainage density, slope, and relief ratio) for 523 GrIS supraglacial river networks. A new algorithm is presented to determine Strahler stream order in supraglacial environments. Results show that (1) Supraglacial river networks are broadly similar to terrestrial landscapes in that they follow Horton’s laws (river number, mean river length, and slope versus stream order), widen downstream, and have comparable mean bifurcation ratios (3.7 ± 1.9) and braiding indices; (2) unlike terrestrial systems, supraglacial drainage densities (0.90–4.75 km/km²) have no correlation with elevation relief, but instead display a weakly inverse correlation with ice surface elevation; (3) both well-developed (e.g., fifth-order) and discrete (e.g., first-order) supraglacial river networks form on the ice sheet, with the latter associated with short flow distances upstream of a terminal moulin; (4) mean river flow widths increase substantially, but flow depths only modestly, with increasing stream order. Viewed collectively, the 523 supraglacial river networks studied here display fluvial morphometries both similar and dissimilar to terrestrial systems, with moulin capture an important physical process driving the latter.     

VLBI中性大气折射延迟的研究进展——映射函数的改正模型

大气传播延迟是空间大地测量技术的主要误差源之一。在射电波段中性大气延迟的影响可从几米到几十米变化 ,即使通过目前某些模型的修正 ,也不能完全消除大气的影响 ,特别是湿大气部分由于变化随机性强 ,很难用模型估计。本文研究了在球对称大气模式下 ,与余误差函数形式相联系的中性大气折射延迟的母函数 ,讨论了与其有关的一些展开式 ,并对各种映射函数进行了比较。     

控制点布设对冰川区无人机摄影测量精度的影响

冰川监测是冰冻圈科学研究中的一项重要基础内容,获取高质量冰川DEM和DOM数据是研究的基础。随着无人机技术的兴起,给冰川监测提供了全新的技术手段,然而冰川区开展无人机摄影测量时,地面控制点的布设与测量成为能否获取高精度数据产品的关键,而山地冰川往往伴随着地形复杂,行走困难,野外实地测量难以全面实施等不利因素。本研究中以位于祁连山西段大雪山地区的老虎沟12号冰川末端部分为研究区域,设计实施了多种控制点布设方案,使用低空微型无人机飞行3个架次,获取研究区航摄影像。通过对比控制点在不同分布情况及数量情况下,DEM和DOM数据检查点的精度,评价不同控制点布设方案的可行性。对比结果显示,在航飞过程中使用单格网模式即可获取高精度的影像数据;实施地面控制作业时,使用5—7个控制点均匀分布在测量区即可获取较高精度的图像数据;当冰川区不能满足均匀布设控制点时,可沿冰川主流线布设足够数量的控制点,所得图像精度也可以满足冰川学研究要求;若只能在冰川中下部或者中上部布设控制点,则控制点应覆盖冰面起伏较大的区域。     

Bias in GRACE estimates of ice mass change due to accompanying sea-level change

Observations of spatio-temporal variations in the geopotential using the GRACE satellites have been used to estimate recent mass fluxes from polar ice sheets and glaciers. However, these estimates have not considered the potential bias associated with the migration of water that accompanies the ice melt. This migration is driven by the diminished gravitational attraction of the melting ice reservoir, and this migration, as well as the crustal loading it induces, will contribute to the observed geopotential anomaly. The extent to which this contribution contaminates the ice mass flux estimates depends on how far the smoothing filters applied to the GRACE data extend beyond the ice margins into the ocean. Using the Antarctic Peninsula as a case study, we estimate the magnitude of this bias for a range of melt areas and Gaussian smoothing filter radii. We conclude that GRACE estimates of ice mass loss over the Antarctic Peninsula are systematically overestimating the loss by up to 10  $\%$ for filter radii of less than 500 km.     

SPIRIT. SPOT 5 stereoscopic survey of Polar Ice: Reference Images and Topographies during the fourth International Polar Year (2007–2009)

Monitoring the evolution of polar glaciers, ice caps and ice streams is of utmost importance because they constitute a good indicator of global climate change and contribute significantly to ongoing sea level rise. Accurate topographic surveys are particularly relevant as they reflect the geometric evolution of ice masses. Unfortunately, the precision and/or spatial coverage of current satellite missions (radar altimetry, ICESat) or field surveys are generally insufficient. Improving our knowledge of the topography of Polar Regions is the goal of the SPIRIT (SPOT 5 stereoscopic survey of Polar Ice: Reference Images and Topographies) international polar year (IPY) project. SPIRIT will allow (1) the acquisition of a large archive of SPOT 5 stereoscopic images covering most polar ice masses and, (2) the delivery of digital terrain models (DTM) to the scientific community.Here, we present the architecture of this project and the coverage achieved over northern and southern polar areas during the first year of IPY (July 2007 to April 2008). We also provide the first accuracy assessments of the SPIRIT DTMs. Over Jakobshavn Isbrae (West Greenland), SPIRIT elevations are within ±6 m of ICESat elevations for 90% of the data. Some comparisons with ICESat profiles over Devon ice cap (Canada), St Elias Mountains (Alaska) and west Svalbard confirm the good overall quality of the SPIRIT DTMs although large errors are observed in the flat accumulation area of Devon ice cap. We then demonstrate the potential of SPIRIT DTMs for mapping glacier elevation changes. The comparison of summer-2007 SPIRIT DTMs with October-2003 ICESat profiles shows that the thinning of Jakobshavn Isbrae (by 30–40 m in 4 years) is restricted to the fast glacier trunk. The thinning of the coastal part of the ice stream (by over 100 m) and the retreat of its calving front (by up to 10 km) are clearly depicted by comparing the SPIRIT DTM to an ASTER April-2003 DTM.     

利用TM高光谱图像提取青藏高原喀喇昆仑山区现代冰川边界

采用阈值法、监督分类、非监督分类、谱间关系法对冰川的TM图像进行了分类,证明利用比值图像取阈值是对冰川区图像分类的有效手段。对图像处理的结果进行了分析和解释,并指出了存在的问题。     

Topographic and atmospheric corrections of gravimetric geoid determination with special emphasis on the effects of harmonics of degrees zero and one

 The topographic and atmospheric effects of gravimetric geoid determination by the modified Stokes formula, which combines terrestrial gravity and a global geopotential model, are presented. Special emphasis is given to the zero- and first-degree effects. The normal potential is defined in the traditional way, such that the disturbing potential in the exterior of the masses contains no zero- and first-degree harmonics. In contrast, it is shown that, as a result of the topographic masses, the gravimetric geoid includes such harmonics of the order of several centimetres. In addition, the atmosphere contributes with a zero-degree harmonic of magnitude within 1 cm. Received: 5 November 1999 / Accepted: 22 January 2001     

青藏高原纳木错湖冰物候变化遥感监测与模拟

湖冰物候是反映区域气候变化的直观指标.由于青藏高原湖冰物候的地面观测不足,遥感与模拟成为动态监测湖冰物候变化并揭示其变化机理的重要途径.本文以纳木错为例,通过不同遥感方法获取了纳木错2000年-2015年湖冰物候的动态变化.在此基础上,将遥感与物理基础清晰的湖泊过程模型相结合,重建了纳木错1963年-2018年的湖冰物...     

THE COOLING OF THE EARTH BY CONVECTION AND SOME OF ITS CONSEQUENCES

Abstract

In this Review (24, 68, 1937) attention was drawn to the need, in considering isostasy, of recognizing the existence of two separate weak layers, i.e. layers in which material can flow horizontally. One of these is a deep layer under both oceans and continents, the other being a layer of plastic basalt, immediately under the continents only, in which mountain ranges and other local surface masses are compensated. That suggestion formed part of a wider theory which has been developed in recent articles in the Pan-American Geologist. A brief review of that theory may be of interest.     

Regional geoid of the Weddell Sea,Antarctica, from heterogeneous ground-based gravity data

We present a geoid solution for the Weddell Sea and adjacent continental Antarctic regions. There, a refined geoid is of interest, especially for oceanographic and glaciological applications. For example, to investigate the Weddell Gyre as a part of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and, thus, of the global ocean circulation, the mean dynamic topography (MDT) is needed. These days, the marine gravity field can be inferred with high and homogeneous resolution from altimetric height profiles of the mean sea surface. However, in areas permanently covered by sea ice as well as in coastal regions, satellite altimetry features deficiencies. Focussing on the Weddell Sea, these aspects are investigated in detail. In these areas, ground-based data that have not been used for geoid computation so far provide additional information in comparison with the existing high-resolution global gravity field models such as EGM2008. The geoid computation is based on the remove–compute–restore approach making use of least-squares collocation. The residual geoid with respect to a release 4 GOCE model adds up to two meters and more in the near-coastal and continental areas of the Weddell Sea region, also in comparison with EGM2008. Consequently, the thus refined geoid serves to compute new estimates of the regional MDT and geostrophic currents.     

从航空数字影像提取北极海冰形态参数的方法研究

在 1999年 7月至 9月的中国首次北极科学考察中 ,对北极密集冰区进行了航空数字相机遥感观测 ,获得一批高分辨率的不同类型海冰数字影像。探讨了利用数字影像分析海冰形态参数的方法。利用这些方法不仅可以分析海冰边缘、密集度、冰水比例等常规参数 ,而且可以获得卫星遥感尚无法探测的一些海冰形态的新参数 ,这些参数将增加对不同类别海冰的认识 ,对于研究北极融冰过程和冰区的海气相互作用提供有价值的手段和分析方法。给出的方法可以应用到中国渤海海冰和其它海域海冰的研究。     

World Maps With Natural Boundaries

The graticule of meridians and parallels is a largely artificial type of map boundary that can detract from the display of irregular features such as oceans. Such natural boundaries as shorelines may be used instead as the boundary of world maps. The principle of natural boundaries has been applied to several examples of equal-area or conformal world ocean maps with single or multiple lobes. By careful selection of the poles and centers, these maps can show both oceans and continents in their entirety on a single map.     

Further remarks on the altimetry-gravimetry problems

The two Altimetry-Gravimetry linearized boundary value problems, both characterized by gravity anomaly boundary data on the continents, while on the oceans either the gravity potential or its radial derivative is assumed to be known, are investigated in their modified version, in the spherical boundary approximation. A constant unknown bias is added to the data set on the oceans, while a vanishing zerodegree harmonic component is assumed as additional constraint. Existence, uniqueness and regularity results are obtained, it is proved that, in order to obtain regularization of the solution, not only regular data must be imposed, on the continents and on the oceans, but suitable constraints on the coast line are needed.     

基于光学遥感卫星影像的南极冰流速产品和方法研究综述EI北大核心CSCD

冰流速是反映在全球气候变化条件下南极冰盖变化及其稳定性最直接和最基本的指标之一,也是精确估算南极冰盖对全球海平面上升贡献的关键数据之一。光学遥感影像因其空间覆盖广、时间和空间分辨率高等优势,是南极冰流速大规模提取的重要数据源。本文首先对现有利用光学遥感影像进行南极冰流速提取的方法进行了综述,介绍了相关的软件和工具。然后,总结了20世纪60年代以来基于光学遥感影像生成的南极冰流速产品,并对南极典型区域的冰流速产品在物质平衡估算、冰架长时序变化监测等方面的应用进行了分析。最后,总结了光学遥感影像用于南极冰流速提取的优势及未来的发展趋势。     

Recent Retreat of Wilkins Ice Shelf Reveals New Insights in Ice Shelf Breakup Mechanisms

The disintegration of various ice shelves on the Antarctic Peninsula has demonstrated their vulnerability and impacts on tributary glaciers. A satellite image of Wilkins Ice Shelf (WIS) from July of 2007 reveals the formation of a large new double fracture, accompanied by numerous small fractures. We show that bending stresses induced by buoyancy forces were responsible for fracture formation. On February 28-29, 2008, an area of about 425 km² broke up at a narrow connection of the WIS to one of its confining islands. In contrast to Larsen B Ice Shelf, melt ponds that drain into crevasses played no role in this breakup process. A further breakup of 160 km² in the same area occurred on May 30-31, 2008 and documented that breakup can occur during austral winter. Radar images reveal a frozen surface, which demonstrates that in this breakup, surface melt water did not play a role. We conclude that ice shelves with strong thickness contrasts carry potential for disintegration. The fact that the WIS experienced two breakup events under two widely contrasting surface conditions (one during the melt season and one during winter) reveals that there may be several reasons for the disintegration of ice shelves that operate under differing circumstances.