Evaluation of site conditions for the Ankara Basin of Turkey based on seismic site characterization of near-surface geologic materials

Regional site conditions relevant for seismic hazard studies can be derived from various geologic, seismologic, and geotechnical sources. In this study, site conditions are derived for the Ankara Basin in Turkey by merging in-situ seismic measurements of dynamic properties, geologic information, and some geotechnical boring information. Field seismic refraction surveys were performed at 259 sites in the project area to classify and characterize Plio–Pleistocene fluvial deposits and Quaternary alluvial and terrace deposits. The shear-wave velocity profiles of the near-surface geologic units are used to characterize site classes according to the International Building Code [International Code Council, ICC. International Building Code. Structural and fire- and life-safety provisions (seismic, wind, accessibility, egress, occupancy and roof codes), 2006. Whittier, CA.] and the Turkish Seismic Code [Ministry of Public Works and Settlement, 1998. Turkish Seismic Code, Specification for Structures to be Built in Disaster Areas, Ankara, Turkey], and to develop a regional model for the average shear-wave velocity in the top 30 m. The resulting maps of site class indicate that the classification system for the Turkish Seismic Code results in a significant portion of the Ankara Basin being classified as Z4, the softest site class. The International Building Code site classification system results in most of the Ankara Basin being classified as D, stiff soil. These differences are caused by the Turkish Seismic Code incorporating information from only the surface layer, while the International Building Code incorporates information from the top 30 m.     

3D near-surface soil response from H/V ambient-noise ratios

The applicability of the horizontal-to-vertical (H/V) ambient-noise spectral ratio for characterizing earthquake site effects caused by near-surface topography and velocity structures was evaluated at sites underlain by thick (i.e. >100 m) sediment deposits near the southern-end of the New Madrid seismic zone in the central United States. Three-component ambient-noise and velocity models derived from seismic (shear-wave) refraction/reflection surveys showed that a relatively horizontal, sharp shear-wave velocity interface in the soil column resulted in an H/V spectral ratio with a single well-defined peak. Observations at sites with more than one sharp shear-wave velocity contrast and horizontally arranged soil layers resulted in at least two well-defined H/V spectral ratio peaks. Furthermore, at sites where there were sharp shear-wave velocity contrasts in nonhorizontal, near-surface soil layers, the H/V spectra exhibited a broad-bandwidth, relatively low-amplitude signal instead of a single well-defined peak.     

Application of passive source surface-wave method in site engineering seismic survey

Site engineering seismic survey provides basic data for seismic effect analysis. As an important parameter of soil, shear-wave velocity is usually obtained through wave velocity testing in borehole. In this paper, the passive source surface-wave method is introduced into the site engineering seismic survey and practically applied in an engineering site of Shijingshan District. By recording the ubiquitous weak vibration on the earth surface, extract the dispersion curve from the surface-wave components using the SPAC method and obtain the shear-wave velocity structure from inversion. Over the depth of 42 m underground, it totally consists of five layers with interface depth of 3.31, 4.50, 7.23, 17.41, and 42.00 m; and shear-wave velocity of 144.0, 198.3, 339.4, 744.2, and 903.7 m/s, respectively. The inversion result is used to evaluate site classification, determine the maximum shear modulus of soil, provide basis for further seismic hazard analysis and site assessment or site zoning, etc. The result shows that the passive source surface-wave method is feasible in the site engineering seismic survey and can replace boreholes, shorten survey period, and reduce engineering cost to some extent.     

泉州市规划区场地抗震性能与土地适宜性分区研究

在泉州市土地适宜性分区规划的编制过程中,建立了比较详细的钻孔资料数据库,给出了泉州规划区内不同土类的剪切波速按埋置深度进行修正的经验公式,并用这些经验公式计算了无实测波速资料的钻孔的等效剪切波速。文中按等效剪切波速和覆盖层厚度进行了场地类别的划分;采用震后残余应变和软化模量的思想和分层总和方法,综合考虑了软土厚度、埋深、地下水位对软土震陷量的影响,使软土震陷量计算结果更为合理。在充分考虑规划区内地形地貌、工程地质条件、场地类别、砂土液化、软土震陷、砂层及软弱土层的厚度分布、滑坡崩塌等对场地抗震性能影响的基础上,给出了更适合规划区的场地抗震性能评价标准,绘制了泉州场地抗震性能与土地适宜性分区图。     

Characterization of site conditions (soil class,V<Subscript>S30</Subscript>, velocity profiles) for 33 stations from the French permanent accelerometric network (RAP) using surface-wave methods

Data provided by accelerometric networks are important for seismic hazard assessment. The correct use of accelerometric signals is conditioned by the station site metadata quality (i.e., soil class, V_S30, velocity profiles, and other relevant information that can help to quantify site effects). In France, the permanent accelerometric network consists of about 150 stations. Thirty-three of these stations in the southern half of France have been characterized, using surface-wave-based methods that allow derivation of velocity profiles from dispersion curves of surface waves. The computation of dispersion curves and their subsequent inversion in terms of shear-wave velocity profiles has allowed estimation of V_S30 values and designation of soil classes, which include the corresponding uncertainties. From a methodological point of view, this survey leads to the following recommendations: (1) perform both active (multi-analysis surface waves) and passive (ambient vibration arrays) measurements to derive dispersion curves in a broadband frequency range; (2) perform active acquisitions for both vertical (Rayleigh wave) and horizontal (Love wave) polarities. Even when the logistic contexts are sometimes difficult, the use of surface-wave-based methods is suitable for station-site characterization, even on rock sites. In comparison with previous studies that have mainly estimated V_S30 indirectly, the new values here are globally lower, but the EC8-A class sites remain numerous. However, even on rock sites, high frequency amplifications may affect accelerometric records, due to the shallow relatively softer layers.     

Geostatistical assessment for the regional zonation of seismic site effects in a coastal urban area using a GIS framework

Earthquake-induced hazards are profoundly affected by site effects related to the amplification of ground motions, which are strongly influenced by local geologic conditions such as soil thickness, bedrock depth, and soil stiffness. Seismic disasters are often more severe over soft soils than over stiff soils or rocks due to differences in local site effects. In this study, on the basis of a geotechnical information system (GTIS) framework, we developed an advanced geostatistical assessment for the regional zonation of seismic site effects. In particular, to reliably predict spatial geotechnical information, we developed a procedural methodology for building an advanced GTIS within a geographic information system framework and applied it to the Busan area in Korea. The systemized GTIS comprised four functional components: database, geostatistical analysis, geotechnical analysis, and visualization. First, to build the GTIS, we collected pre-existing geotechnical data in and around the study area, and then conducted a walk-over site survey to acquire surface geo-knowledge data. Second, we determined the optimum geostatistical estimation method using a cross-validation-based verification test, considering site conditions. The advanced GTIS was used in a practical application to estimate the site effects in the study area. We created seismic zoning maps of geotechnical earthquake parameters, such as the depth to bedrock and the site period, and present them as part of a regional synthetic strategy for earthquake risk assessment.     

Side effect of using response spectral amplification ratios for soil sites—variability and earthquake-magnitude and source-distance dependent amplification ratios for soil sites

We investigate a special type of variability in response spectral amplification ratios computed from numerical “engineering” models for a soft soil site. The engineering models are defined by shallow soil layers over “engineering” bedrock with a shear-wave velocity over 600–700 m/s and the model is subjected to vertical propagating shear waves. The variability, perhaps unique in earthquake engineering, is a result of the “perfectly accurate” computational procedure. For example, an engineering soil site model, subjected to two rock site records or the two horizontal components of a rock site record, produces different response spectral amplification ratios. We use a large number of strong-motion records from “engineering” rock sites, with a reasonably balanced distribution with respect to magnitude and source distance, generated by subduction earthquakes in Japan, to investigate the nature of the variability. In order to avoid any approximation in removing the effect of soil nonlinear response, we use a simple model, a single horizontal soil layer over a bedrock, modelled as elastic. We then demonstrate that a similar type of variability observed in the one- or two-dimensional nonlinear soil models is caused by the nature of response spectral amplification ratios, not a direct result of soil nonlinear response. Examination of variability reveals that the average of response spectral amplification ratios systematically depends on both earthquake magnitude and source distance. We find that, at periods much longer than the site natural periods of the soil sites, the scatter of the amplification ratios decreases with increasing magnitude and source distance. These findings may have a potential impact in establishing design spectra for soft soil sites using strong-motion attenuation models or dynamic numerical modelling.     

Soil characteristics in Doon Valley (north west Himalaya,India) by inversion of H/V spectral ratios from ambient noise measurements

Past and recent observations have shown that the local site conditions significantly affect the behavior of seismic waves and its potential to cause destructive earthquakes. Thus, seismic microzonation studies have become crucial for seismic hazard assessment, providing local soil characteristics that can help to evaluate the possible seismic effects. Among the different methods used for estimating the soil characteristics, the ones based on ambient noise measurements, such as the H/V technique, become a cheap, non-invasive and successful way for evaluating the soil properties along a studied area.In this work, ambient noise measurements were taken at 240 sites around the Doon Valley, India, in order to characterize the sediment deposits. First, the H/V analysis has been carried out to estimate the resonant frequencies along the valley. Subsequently, some of this H/V results have been inverted, using the neighborhood algorithm and the available geotechnical information, in order to provide an estimation of the S-wave velocity profiles at the studied sites.Using all these information, we have characterized the sedimentary deposits in different areas of the Doon Valley, providing the resonant frequency, the soil thickness, the mean S-wave velocity of the sediments, and the mean S-wave velocity in the uppermost 30 m.     

利用远震接收函数研究黄海周边地区的地壳上地幔结构

利用宽频带流动台站(YSBSN)记录的远震波形数据和远震接收函数方法,反演了黄海东、西两侧地壳上地幔的S波速度结构.结果表明,莫霍面深度在30~38 km之间变化,位于中方一侧的JNN台下方地壳厚度最大,可以归因于华北板块和扬子板块的碰撞;韩方一侧的地壳厚度自北向南逐渐变厚,但仍然难以厘定朝鲜半岛南部潜在碰撞带的位置,这些问题的解决需要更大范围的流动台站观测.由于部分台站位于巨厚的沉积层和多孔的火山岩之上,与浅部构造的相关性使得接收函数表现出较大振幅的混响,从而影响了来自深部结构的转换震相.     

Non-uniqueness in surface-wave inversion and consequences on seismic site response analyses

Surface-wave tests are based on the solution of an inverse problem for shear-wave velocity profile identification from the experimentally measured dispersion curve. The main criticisms for these testing methodologies are related to the inverse problem solution and arise from the possible equivalence of different shear-wave velocity profiles. In this paper, some implications of solution non-uniqueness for seismic response studies are investigated using both numerical simulations and experimental data. A Monte Carlo approach for the inversion problem has been used to obtain a set of equivalent shear-wave velocity models. This selection is based on a statistical test which takes into account both data uncertainty and model parameterization. This set of solutions (i.e., soil profiles) is then used to evaluate the seismic response with a conventional one-dimensional analysis. It is shown that equivalent profiles with respect to surface-wave testing are equivalent also with respect to site amplification, thus countering the criticism related to inversion uncertainty for the engineering use of surface-wave tests.     

四川、甘肃地区VS30经验估计研究

目前我国建筑工程抗震设计规范中对于工程场地条件的判断依据主要是地表以下20m深度范围内土层的等效剪切波速,简称VS20。相比之下,国外应用较广的是地表以下30m深度范围内的等效剪切波速,简称VS30。这种差别导致国内科研工作者在应用国外的地震工程、工程抗震模型时经常遇到对场地条件描述不准确的困难。为了解决这个问题,本文根据147个四川、甘肃地区国家强震动台站20m左右深度的钻孔剪切波速数据,利用延拓方法、场地分类统计方法以及基于地形特征的VS30估计方法研究各台站VS30与VS20的经验关系,对比发现基于速度梯度延拓的结果最为可取。参考国际上通用的Geomatrix Classification场地分类标准,最终得到四川、甘肃地区各类场地的平均VS30,此结果可以为缺乏钻孔数据的工程场地的VS30估计提供参考。     

Shear-wave velocity estimation using a combination of ambient noise from small aperture array and small-scale active seismic measurements: a case study in the area of the natural gas fields of Northern Germany

In recent years, numerous induced seismic events have occurred in the proximity of the natural gas field in Northern Germany. To monitor the seismicity and to asses the seismic hazard potential, a local monitoring network was installed in the area. Focusing on the seismicity hazard assessment, a major challenge is the characterisation of potential site effects due to local soil characteristics. This is quantitatively performed by estimating the shear-wave velocity (V _s) variation with subsurface layer thickness. Such local effects can only be covered with a coarse spatial resolution due to the limited number of monitoring stations. Profiles were determined at three test sites (Langwedel, Walle and Bomlitz) by using a combined approach of small aperture 2D array ambient noise and small-scale active 1D measurements. The high-resolution frequency-wavenumber (HRFK), spatial autocorrelation (SPAC) and multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW) methods were applied to the recorded ambient noise and active seismic data using various array sizes supplemented by the active measurements. This jointly allowed obtaining phase velocity dispersion curves covering a wide frequency range from 2 up to 32 Hz. The inversion of the obtained dispersion curves results in average S-wave velocity profiles down to depths of 70 m, identifying thin near-surface layers of a few meters as well as thicker layers of tens of meters in greater depth. A comparison with available borehole data shows a good correlation with the layering. Additionally, to asses the impact of a seismic event at the test sites, PGV estimations for various seismic events were performed. The final results of the test surveys demonstrate that the combined approach represents a suitable tool for near-surface characterisation, which can be used to improve the seismic hazard assessment in the area of the natural gas fields in Northern Germany.     

VS30, site amplifications and some comparisons: The Adapazari (Turkey) case

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of V_S30 in site amplifications in the Adapazari region, Turkey. To fulfil this aim, amplifications from V_S30 measurements were compared with earthquake data for different soil types in the seismic design codes. The Adapazari area was selected as the study area, and shear-wave velocity distribution was obtained by the multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASWs) method at 100 sites for the top 50 m of soil. Aftershock data following the Mw 7.4 Izmit earthquake of 17 August 1999 gave magnitudes between 4.0 and 5.6 at six stations installed in and around the Adapazari Basin, at Babalı, Şeker, Genç, Hastane, Toyota and Imar. This data was used to estimate site amplifications by the reference-station method. In addition, the fundamental periods of the station sites were estimated by the single station method. Site classifications based on V_S30 in the seismic design codes were compared with the fundamental periods and amplification values. It was found that site amplifications (from earthquake data) and relevant spectra (from V_S30) are not in good agreement for soils in Adapazari (Turkey).     

A taxonomy of site response complexity

A few extensively studied downhole seismic arrays are commonly used in detailed site response studies. Thus, there is a critical need to increase the number of sites that are used to compare soil constitutive models. Toward this end, we develop a classification scheme for downhole arrays that identifies stations where common wave propagation assumptions are valid. For stations where the one-dimensional (1D) assumption does not hold, we identify different levels of complexity that must be accounted for, which is a function of the inter-event variability and the similarity between the empirical and one-dimensional theoretical transfer functions. The classification is based on 100 seismic arrays in Japan that have recorded surface accelerations in excess of 0.3g, 69 of which exhibit low inter-event variability. The response at 16 of these sites resembles the one-dimensional response, while the others deviate from one-dimensional behavior, indicating that the one-dimensional assumption is not acceptable in most cases. We check our interpretation of the taxonomy with field investigations at two stations. The field observations show large lateral variations of the velocity profile across distances of hundreds of meters at the station where we expect the one-dimensional assumption does not hold.     

基于背景噪声成像方法的新疆呼图壁储气库地区近地表速度结构研究

近年来,背景噪声成像方法在恢复高频面波信号及获取近地表速度结构方面得到了广泛的应用,本文将该方法应用于准噶尔盆地南缘的呼图壁背斜地区的呼图壁储气库.采用储气库及其周边区域22个台站记录的连续背景噪声数据的垂直分量,通过噪声互相关方法获得了台站对之间的瑞利面波经验格林函数,并进一步提取了0.5~1.5 s的基阶瑞利面波群速度频散曲线.首先根据区域平均频散曲线得到了该地区地下数百米的平均一维横波速度结构,然后利用基于面波射线路径追踪的面波频散直接成像方法得到该地区深度为500 m以上的三维横波速度结构.反演结果显示该地区沉积层较厚,整体横波速度值较小（0.4~0.9 km·s^-1）.储气库在地表投影区域的横波速度值较小,这可能是由于抽注水、气引起的沉积岩石裂隙所导致.储气库东北和东南方向均有明显的相对高速区,推测是区域地下水位和地形起伏综合作用的结果.本研究获得的近地表三维速度结构为呼图壁储气库地区的上覆地层物性研究、区域微震精定位、场地效应的评估和去除浅层影响的深部介质成像等研究提供了重要基础.     

浅硬场地剪切波速测试标准差对地震动影响初探

采用Shake 2000程序,以Turkey Flat试验场地为模型,通过输入不同类型下多种强度的地震波,计算研究多工况下剪切波速测试标准差对地表加速度反应谱和峰值加速度的影响。结论为:(1)浅硬场地上剪切波速测试标准差对地震动的影响很大,影响程度与输入地震波的强度和频率以及场地剪切波速计算值有关;(2)如果将反应谱残差大于20%或加速度峰值差别大于20%定义为统计意义上的不可忽略,那么剪切波速测试标准差对计算结果的影响在大多数情况下均不可忽略;(3)当输入波的卓越周期与场地特征周期接近时,浅硬场地上剪切波速测试标准差引起的反应谱变化非常显著;(4)只有当输入波的卓越周期与场地特征周期相差较大且输入波强度偏小时,剪切波速测试标准差引起的反应谱变化才可略去;(5)当浅硬场地上剪切波速实测结果低于统计均值时,地震动计算结果的偏差一般明显大于剪切波速实测结果,高于统计均值时引起的偏差,且地震输入越强表现越明显。     

波速原位测试结果标准差对较深软场地地震反应谱影响初探

波速测试结果在工程上的应用越来越重要,但波速测试结果的不确定性一直影响着抗震设计。为了准确地描述这一不确定性,对较深软场地的地震响应进行了计算。采用Shake 2000程序,通过输入不同类型的多种强度的地震波,研究了较深软场地的多种工况下剪切波速测试标准差对地表加速度反应谱和峰值加速度的影响。结果表明,较深软场地上的波速测试标准差对场地的加速度反应谱和峰值加速度基本没有影响;不同地震强度下的反应谱和峰值加速度的变化,基本可以忽略。随着波速测试数据量的增加,本文研究结果还有待进一步的深入与完善。     

Assessment of Seismic Site Conditions: a Case Study from Guwahati City,Northeast India

The 1897 Great Shillong earthquake revealed considerable seismic susceptibility in Guwahati City, such as soil liquefaction, landslides, and surface fissures. In an attempt to quantify the seismic vulnerability of the city based on geological, seismological, and geotechnical aspects concerning seismic site characterization, in-depth analysis was performed using a microtremor survey with recordings of five small to moderate magnitude (4.8 ≤ m_b ≤ 5.4) earthquakes that occurred in 2006 and geotechnical investigations using the Standard Penetration Test (SPT). Additionally, the basement topography was established using vertical electrical resistivity sounding and selected drill-hole information. Region-specific relationships are derived by correlating the estimated values of predominant frequency, shear-wave velocity, and basement depth indicating conformity with the predominant frequency distribution and the basin topography underlain by a hard granitic basement. Most parts of the city adhere to the predominant frequency range of 0.5–3.5 Hz, setting aside areas of deep sediment fills or hilly tracts, suggesting that the existing moderate-rise RC buildings in the territory are seismically vulnerable. Furthermore, the geotechnical assessment of the soil liquefaction potential reveals widespread susceptibility across the terrain. Eventually, a site classification map of the city is prepared following the National Earthquake Hazard Program (NEHRP) provision. The average site amplification factor from geotechnical modeling for site class D is about 3 in the frequency range of 2–4 Hz. In addition, earthquake data yield an average site amplification factor of 4–6 in the frequency range of 1.2–5.0 Hz at the seismic stations located in site class E and F. High site amplifications of around 5.5 and 7.5 at 2 Hz, respectively, are observed at AMTRON and IRRIG seismic stations, which are located in the proximity of Precambrian rocks, indicating probable basin edge effects—scattering and diffraction of incident energy. Interplay of dispersed valleys surrounded by small hillocks in the study region is likely to induce micro-basin effects where the sediment thickness/depth vis-à-vis predominant frequency and basin geometry in conjunction play pivotal roles in the augmentation of site response.     

Assessment of seismic amplification factor of excavation with support system

Retaining walls have been used in many construction projects such as for road and inclined surfaces protection. The damage caused by an earthquake depends on the fundamental frequency, amplitude and the duration of the seismic motion. These parameters strongly depend on the seismic properties of the layers that are near the surface. In the study of retaining walls, in addition to the influence of soil, the influence of topography is also important. In the present study, site response analysis is performed by using finite element software PLAXIS to obtain the effect of various factors such as embedded length of the sheet pile, underground water table, length and angle of the nail, shear wave velocity of soil on site effect and dynamic response. Moreover, for better understanding of the effect of the above parameters, the stability analysis was performed by using shear reduction method. The results show that an increase in the embedded length of the sheet pile and the length of nailing causes an increase in the amplification factor. Moreover, for shear-wave velocity in the range of 200-600 m/s, the amplification factor increases with increase of the shear-wave velocity due to the decrease of nonlinear behavior.     

汶川地震余震震源参数及地震动衰减与场地影响参数反演分析

基于强震动观测台钻孔数据, 统计得到了四川、 甘肃地区20 m深的浅硬土层场地平均剪切波速模型． 通过与美国加州地区的波速模型对比, 结合四川、 甘肃地区地震预报的地壳模型, 延拓剪切波速模型至40 km． 应用四分之一波长法计算了浅硬土层场地的平均场地放大系数． 利用场地放大系数, 消除13次余震中浅硬场地的台站场地响应, 反演了龙门山断层上、 下盘的介质品质因子以及13次余震的有效应力降． 通过与普通土层场地的强震动记录对比, 对浅硬土层场地的放大系数进行调整, 得到了深厚土层场地的平均放大系数．