Characterisation of the non-asphaltene products of mild chemical degradation of asphaltenes

The major steranes of the non-asphaltene fraction of Nigerian tar sand bitumen (maltene) are the c₂₇-c₂₉ diasteranes [13β(H),17α(H); 20R + S] and C₂₈-C₂₉ regular steranes [14β (H),17β (H); 20S]. The reducing metal reaction products of the corresponding asphaltenes (maltene-I) contain mainly C₂₇-C₂₉ regular steranes with the 14β(H),17β(H); 20R + S and 14α(H),17α(H); 20R + S configurations as well as the corresponding diasteranes having the 13β(H),17α(H); 20R + S configuration. These sterane distributions suggest that maltene-I corresponds to an unaltered oil whilst the maltene is equivalent to the product of severe biodegradation of maltene-I. This is consistent with maltene-I being the remnant of “original oil” trapped within the asphaltene matrix and protected from the effect of in-reservior biodégradation.Degradation of Nigerian asphaltenes by refluxing with ferric chloride-acetic anhydride or methanolic potassium hydroxide also releases soluble reaction products having the characteristics of unaltered oil such as the presence of n-alkanes having an unbiased distribution. These methods appear to be milder and more suitable than reducing metal reactions for releasing hydrocarbons occluded by asphaltenes.     

Use of biomarker distributions and compound specific isotopes of carbon and hydrogen to delineate hydrocarbon characteristics in the East Sirte Basin (Libya)

Biomarker ratios, together with stable carbon (δ¹³C) and hydrogen (δD) isotopic compositions of individual hydrocarbons have been determined in a suite of crude oils (n = 24) from the East Sirte Basin to delineate their sources and respective thermal maturity. The crude oil samples are divided into two main families (A and B) based on differences in source inputs and thermal maturity. Using source specific parameters including pristane/phytane (Pr/Ph), hopane/sterane, dibenzothiophene/phenanthrene (DBT/P), Pr/n-C₁₇ and Ph/n-C_l8 ratios and the distributions of tricyclic and tetracyclic terpanes, family B oils are ascribed a marine source rock deposited under sub-oxic conditions, while family A oils have a more terrigenous source affinity. This genetic classification is supported by the stable carbon isotopic compositions (δ¹³C) of the n-alkanes. Using biomarker maturity parameters such as the abundance of Pr and Ph relative to n-alkanes and the distribution of sterane and hopane isomers, family A oils are shown to be more thermally mature than family B oils. The contrasting maturity of the two families is supported by differences between the stable hydrogen isotopic compositions (δD) of Pr and Ph and the n-alkanes, as well as the δ¹³C values of n-alkanes in their respective oils.     

Thermodynamic stability of various alkylated, dealkylated and rearranged 17α- and 17β-hopane isomers using molecular mechanics calculations

The thermodynamic stability of selected alkylated, dealkylated and rearranged 17α- and 17β-hopane isomers in the C₂₇, C₂₈, C₂₉, C₃₀ and C₃₁ families were calculated using molecular mechanics (MM2) methods and, where possible, calculated equilibrium ratios of certain isomers were compared with observed ratios of isomers in thermally mature crude oil samples. Those calculated and observed ratios having similar values include: (1) the relative distributions among 17β(H)/17α(H) and 21β(H)/21α(H)-hopanes including the absence of the 17β(H),21β(H)- and 17α(H),21α(H)-hopanes; (2) the 22R/22S ratios in 30-methyl-17α-hopane and 30-methyl-17β-moretane; (3) the relative distributions among 17α(H)/17β(H)- and 21α(H)/21β(H)-28,30-bisnorhopanes and among 25,28,30-trisnorhopanes, including the relatively greater stability of 17β(H) isomers in contrast to the regular hopane series; and (4) the ratios of 28(18−17S)abeo hopanes with respect to their unrearranged counterparts including the C₂₇ compounds, Ts/Tm.     

Detection of petroleum contamination in river sediments from Quebec City region using GC–IRMS

Isotopic analysis by compound specific gas chromatography–isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC–IRMS) is used to detect and characterize petroleum pollution in surficial sediments along the St Lawrence River, near Quebec City. Unusually mature n-alkane distributions have been found in some recent intertidal sediments in the region. GC–IRMS results suggest that the n-alkanes are not derived from indigenous organic sources because they carry δ¹³C values between −30.0 and −27.0‰, as well as very small isotopic differences between odd and even numbered n-alkanes, which are both typically associated with petroleum products. Comparison of these sediments with bunker fuel, an oil used in the shipping industry, has shown a close isotopic correlation in some sites, which is further supported by biomarkers. Overall, the contamination has been dispersed along the river but is generally localized around the industrial region where hydrocarbon transfer from shore storage to ships takes place. This study illustrates how GC–IRMS can be used effectively in the detection and characterization of petroleum pollutants in sediments.     

Geochemistry of hydroxy acids in sediments—I. Some freshwater and brackish water lakes in Japan

Series of α, β, ω and (ω-1) hydroxy fatty acids (FAOHs) were determined in several freshwater and brackish water lacustrine sediments in Japan. Analytical procedure used was digestion of the solvent-extracted sediment with HF/HCl followed by solvent and saponification extraction of the residue. Abundances of α/β and ω-FAOH determined by this procedure were 2–3 times higher than those obtained by single alkaline saponification and of the same order with those provided by HCl hydrolysis. Major portion of α/β-FAOH was obtained by solvent extraction of the acid-treated sediments, while subsequent alkaline saponification was needed for the majority of ω-FAOH to be recovered. Thus determined FAOHs comprised 33–61% (Av. = 42%) of the “bound” acid constituents in the lacustrine surface sediments. The α/β and ω-FAOH composition was principally the same among the samples examined, except for relative proportions of the iso to anteiso C₁₅ and C₁₇ ß(α)-FAOH, which showed significant variations in the ranges of 0.30–1.1 and 0.46–1.5, respectively. In the holomictic lakes, the ratios together with the same ratios of the “bound” branched monocarboxylic acids tended to decrease with increasing water depth of the lakes, suggesting that the ratios may indicate an extent of the early diagenetic alteration of the bacteria-derived lipids either in water column or in surface sediment.     

Characterization of Estonian Kukersite by spectroscopy and pyrolysis: Evidence for abundant alkyl phenolic moieties in an Ordovician, marine, type II/I kerogen

The kerogen of a sample of Estonian Kukersite (Ordovician) was examined by spectroscopic (solid state ¹³C NMR, FTIR) and pyrolytic (“off-line”, flash) methods. This revealed an important contribution of long, linear alkyl chains in Kukersite kerogen. The hydrocarbons formed upon pyrolysis are dominated by n-alkanes and n-alk-1-enes and probably reflect a major contribution of selectivity preserved, highly aliphatic, resistant biomacromolecules from the outer cell walls of Gloeocapsomorpha prisca. This is consistent with the abundant presence of this fossilized organism in Kukersite kerogen. In addition high amounts of phenolic compounds were identified in the pyrolysates. Series of non-methylated, mono-, di- and trimethylated 3-n-alkylphenols, 5-n-alkyl-1,3-benzenediols and n-alkylhydroxybenzofurans were identified. All series of phenolic compounds contain long (up to C₁₉), linear alkyl side-chains. Kukersite kerogen is, therefore, an aliphatic type II/I kerogen, despite the abundance of free phenolic moieties. This study shows that phenol-derived moieties are not necessarily associated with higher plant-derived organic matter.The flash pyrolysate of Kukersite kerogen was also compared with that of the kerogen of the Guttenberg Oil Rock (Ordovician) which is also composed of accumulations of fossilized G. prisca. Similarities in the distributions of hydrocarbons and sulphur compounds were noted, especially for the C₁–C₆ alkylbenzene and alkylthiophene distributions. However, no phenolic compounds were detected in the flash pyrolysate of the Guttenberg kerogen. Possible explanations for the observed similarities and differences are discussed.     

Hydrogen isotopic compositions of individual alkanes as a new approach to petroleum correlation: case studies from the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin

Isotopic compositions of carbon-bound hydrogen in individual n-alkanes and acyclic isoprenoid alkanes, from a number of crude oil samples, were measured using gas chromatography-thermal conversion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry. The precision of this technique is better than 3‰ for most alkanes, compared to the large range of δD variation among the samples (up to 160‰). The oils were selected from major genetic oil families in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin, with source rocks ranging in age from Ordovician (and possibly Cambrian) to Cretaceous. The hydrogen isotopic composition of alkanes in crude oils is controlled by three factors: isotopic compositions of biosynthetic precursors, source water δD values, and postdepositional processes. The inherited difference in the lipid's biosynthetic origins and/or pathways is reflected by a small hydrogen isotopic variability within n-alkanes, but much larger differences in the δD values between n-alkanes and pristane/phytane. The shift toward lighter hydrogen isotopic compositions from Paleozoic to Upper Cretaceous oils in the WCSB reflects a special depositional setting and/or a minor contribution of terrestrial organic matter. The strong influence of source water δD values is demonstrated by the distinctively lower δD values of lacustrine oils than marine oils, and also by the high values for oils with source rocks deposited in evaporative environments. Thermal maturation may alter the δD values of the alkanes in the oil to some extent, but secondary oil migration does not appear to have had any significant impact. The fact that oils derived from source rocks that could be of Cambrian age still retain a strong signature of the hydrogen isotopic compositions of source organic matter, and source water, indicates that δD values are very useful for oil-source correlation and for paleoenvironmental reconstructions.     

Lipid distribution in a subtropical southern China stalagmite as a record of soil ecosystem response to paleoclimate change

Lipid extracts from a 61.7-cm-long subtropical stalagmite in southern China, spanning the period of ca. 10,000–21,000 yr ago as constrained by U–Th dating, were analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The higher plants and microorganisms in the overlying soils contribute a proportion of n-alkanes identified in the stalagmite. The occurrence of LMW (lower molecular weight) n-alkanols and n-alkan-2-ones in the stalagmite was mainly related to the soil microorganisms. We suggest that HMW (higher molecular weight) n-alkanols and n-alkan-2-ones identified in the stalagmite originate from soil organics and reflect input from contemporary vegetation. Shifts in the ratio of LMW to HMW n-alkanols or n-alkan-2-ones indicative of the variation of soil ecosystems (e.g., microbial degradation of organic matter and/or the relative abundance of soil microorganisms to higher plants) are comparable with the subtropical alkenone-SST (sea surface temperature) record of the same period. The similar trends seen in the δ¹³C data and the lipid parameters in this stalagmite imply that the overlying soil ecosystem response to climate might be responsible for the variation of δ¹³C values.     

Aliphatic and diterpenoid hydrocarbons and their individual carbon isotope compositions in coals from the Liaohe Basin, China

Abundant tricyclic diterpanes (i.e., pimarane, dehydroabietane and simonellite) and tetracyclic diterpanes (e.g., phyllocladane) were detected in coal samples from the third member of the Shahejie Formation, Lower-Eogene, Liaohe Basin, China. Gas chromatography–isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC–IRMS) analyses show that the carbon isotopic composition of terrigenous tricyclic and tetracyclic diterpenoid hydrocarbons are about 4–6‰ enriched in ¹³C compared to n-alkanes in the same samples. In addition, the pimaranes and phyllocladane have comparatively narrow stable carbon isotopic compositions among the different samples, with a slightly wider range in δ¹³C compositions for the abietanes (i.e., abietane, dehydroabietane and simonellite). The n-alkanes and triterpenoids reflect the δ¹³C compositions of higher plant wax.     

Carbon isotopic composition of individual n-alkanes in asphaltene pyrolysates of biodegraded crude oils from the Liaohe Basin, China

Biodegraded oils are widely distributed in the Liaohe basin, China. In order to develop effective oil-source correlation tools specifically for the biodegraded oils, carbon isotopic compositions of individual n-alkanes from crude oils and their asphaltene pyrolysates have been determined using the gas chromatography–isotope ratio mass spectrometry technique. No significant fractionation in the stable carbon isotopic ratios of n-alkanes in the pyrolysates of oil asphaltenes was found for anhydrous pyrolysis carried out at temperatures below 340°C. This suggests that the stable carbon isotopic distribution of n-alkanes (particularly in the C₁₆–C₂₉ range) in the asphaltene pyrolysates can be used as a correlation tool for severely biodegraded oils from the Liaohe Basin. Comparison of the n-alkane isotopic compositions of the oils with those of asphaltene pyrolysates shows that this is a viable method for the differentiation of organic facies variation and post-generation alterations.     

Petrological, organic geochemical and geochemical characteristics of coal from the Soko mine, Serbia

A petrological, organic geochemical and geochemical study was performed on coal samples from the Soko Mine, Soko Banja basin, Serbia. Ten coal and two carbonaceous clay samples were collected from fresh, working faces in the underground brown coal mine from different parts of the main coal seam. The Lower Miocene, low-rank coal of the Soko Mine is a typical humic coal with huminite concentrations of up to 76.2 vol.%, liptinite less than 14 vol.% and inertinite less than 11 vol.%. Ulminite is the most abundant maceral with variable amounts of densinite and clay minerals. Sporinite and resinite are the most common macerals of the liptinite group. Inertodetrinite is the most abundant maceral of the inertinite group. The mineral-bituminous groundmass identified in some coal samples, and carbonaceous marly clay, indicate sub-aquatic origin and strong bacterial decomposition. The mean random huminite reflectance (ulminite B) for the main coal seam is 0.40 ± 0.05% Rr, which is typical for an immature to early mature stage of organic matter.The extract yields from the coal of the Soko Banja basin ranges from 9413 to 14,096 ppm, in which alkanes constituted 1.0–20.1%, aromatics 1.3–14.7%, asphaltenes 28.1–76.2% and resins 20.2–43.5%. The saturated hydrocarbon fractions included n-C₁₅ to n-C₃₂, with an odd carbon number that predominate in almost all the samples. The contents of n-C₂₇ and n-C₂₉ alkanes are extremely high in some samples, as a contribution of epicuticular waxes from higher plants. Acyclic isoprenoid hydrocarbons are minor constituents in the aliphatic fraction, and the pristane/phytane (Pr/Ph) ratio varies between 0.56 and 3.13, which implies anaerobic to oxic conditions during sedimentation. The most abundant diterpanes were abietane, dehydroabietane and 16α(H)-phyllocladane. In samples from the upper part of the coal seam, diterpanes are the dominant constituents of the alkane fraction. Polycyclic alkanes of the triterpane type are important constituents of alkane fractions. The occurrence of ββ- and αβ-type hopanes from C₂₇ to C₃₁, but without C₂₈, is typical for the Soko Banja coals.The major and trace elements in the coal were analysed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). In comparison with world lignites, using the geometric mean value, the coal from the Soko Banja Basin has a high content of strontium (306.953 mg/kg). Higher values than the world lignites were obtained for Mo (3.614 mg/kg), Ni (8.119 mg/kg), Se (0.884 mg/kg), U (2.642 mg/kg) and W (0.148 mg/kg). Correlation analysis shows inorganic affinity for almost all the major and trace elements, except for S, which has an organic affinity.     

Petrologic and geochemical characteristics of “barkinite” from the Dahe mine, Guizhou Province, China

Although “barkinite” has long been studied by many geologists, its geochemical characteristics and environment of deposition are still not known in detail. In order to study the petrography and geochemical characteristics of “barkinite”, coal samples from two Permian coal seams were taken from the Dahe mine, Guizhou Province. The samples were separated into maceral fractions, and then analyzed by microscopical, isotopic, Rock-Eval, and geochemical methods. The microscopical results indicate that “barkinite” occurs as four main types. According to their relationship to other maceral groups, “barkinite” is ostensibly formed under variably dry–wet or oxidizing–reducing conditions. The extract yield, isotope data and Rock-Eval values of “barkinite” are different from other macerals. Microscopical and geochemical results indicate that “barkinite” forms part of the liptinite group.     

Micro-FTIR spectroscopy of liptinite macerals in coal

Reflectance FTIR microspectroscopy has been used to investigate the chemical structure of the liptinite macerals, alginite, bituminite, sporinite, cutinite and resinite in bituminous coals of Carboniferous to Tertiary age. In comparison with the spectra of vitrinite in the same coals, the micro-FTIR spectra of liptinite macerals are characterized by stronger aliphatic CH_x absorptions at 3000–2800 and 1460–1450 cm⁻¹, less intense aromatic C=C ring stretching vibration and aromatic CH out of plane deformation at 1610–1560 and 900–700 cm⁻¹ respectively and various intense acid C=O group absorptions at 1740–1700 cm⁻¹. The peaks at 1000–900 cm⁻¹ due to aliphatic CH₂ wagging vibrations in olefins and at 730–720 cm⁻¹ due to CH₂ rocking vibration in long chain aliphatic substances ([CH₂]_n, n≥4), are characteristic of liptinite macerals. Collectively the micro-FTIR spectral characteristics indicate that liptinite is composed of greater numbers of long chain aliphatics, fewer aromatics and a broader range of oxygen-containing groups than other macerals. Marked differences exist in micro-FTIR spectra within the liptinite maceral group. Alginite has the strongest aliphatic and least aromatic absorptions followed by bituminite, resinite, cutinite and sporinite. The aliphatic components in alginite are the longest chained and least branched whereas those in sporinite are the shortest chained and most branched. Bituminite, resinite and cutinite are intermediate. Notable differences in micro-FTIR spectra of individual liptinite macerals, such as intensities and peak locations of aromatic C=C in alginite, C=O groups in bituminite and resinite and substituted aromatic CH and C–O–C groups in cutinite and sporinite, also exist, which are attributed to differences in depositional environments or biotaxonomy.     

Aliphatic components of Victorian brown coal lithotypes

Victorian brown coal occurs in five major lithotypes distinguishable by colour index, petrography and bulk chemical analyses. The distributions of solvent extractable (free) and base hydrolysable (bound) n-alkanes, n-monocar?ylic acids, n-?,ω-dicar?ylic acids, n-ω-hydroxycar?ylic acids and n-alcohols were determined for samples of each of the five lithotypes (lithotype profile) and for seven samples of identical lithotype classification spanning a 100 m interval (depth profile) taken from a continuous bore core. The distributions of free molecular components in all classes are indicative of the predominant higher plant origin of this immature coal and provide strong support for the view that different lithotypes have derived from different, yet fairly specific paleobotanical communities. Despite an overall similarity in the distributions of aliphatic components from samples of identical lithotype classification, changes in the absolute concentrations and carbon preference indices (CPIs) of specific functional classes are observed in response to catagenetic influences even across the very small rank interval of the depth profile samples. Molecular distributions of bound components are similar to those of their free counterparts except that CPIs are generally lower and the relative contributions of lower molecular weight homologues (i.e. <C₂₂) are higher. Thedistributions of bound dicar?ylic acids and hydroxycar?ylic acids appear to reflect variations in the oxic/anoxic nature of the depositional paleoenvironments.     

Sterane isomerisation and moretane/hopane ratios in crude oils derived from Tertiary source rocks

The extent of sterane isomerisation reactions and the moretane/hopane ratios of 234 crude oils, taken world wide, from a wide variety of source rocks of differing geological ages, have been measured.This data indicates that in 78 crude oils derived from Tertiary source rocks, sterane isomerisation reactions as determined by the 20S/(20S + 20R) ration of the C₂₉ 5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H) normal-steranes and the C₂₉ iso/(iso + normal) ratio [iso = 5α (H), 14β(H), 17β(H)] are mainly incomplete and sometimes considerably so. In addition, the same crude oils have 17β(H), 21α(H)-moretane/17α(H), 21β(H)-hopane ratios which are significantly greater (predominantly in the range 0.10–0.30) than those of crude oils derived from older, mature source rocks (mainly less than 0.1).This data, for crude oils, lends support to the hypothesis, proposed by Mackenzie and McKenzie (1983) for source rock extracts, that the time/temperature constraints of sterane isomerisation reactions are such that the time available for isomerisation in Tertiary sediments is generally insufficient, despite generation of crude oil at relatively high temperatures.An alternative hypothesis is that the incomplete sterane isomerisation of Tertiary crude oils may be due to generation of these crude oils from their deltaic, land plant-containing source rocks under low heating conditions.A third hypothesis proposes that the Tertiary crude oils may have picked up the incompletely isomerised steranes from immature sediments during migration. Although possible in particular instances, such a mechanism does not appear to be generally applicable since, in that case, the phenomenon would then appear to be restricted to the Tertiary.The higher moretane/hopane ratios of the Tertiary crude oils could suggest that constraints, similar to those applying in sterane isomerisation, also operate in the conversion of moretane to 17α(H)-hopane.     

Geosteranes: Identification and synthesis of a novel series of 3-substituted steranes

A novel series of 3-alkyl and 3-carboxyalkyl-5β(H)-steranes 7–10 along with a full homologous series of carboxyalkyl-sterane (C₁ to C₆) 4–6 with 3α(H)5α(H) configuration have been identified in marine-evaporitic oils from Fazenda Belém, Potiguar Basin (Brazil) on the basis of mass spectral interpretation. The synthesis of enantiomerically pure 3α-alkyl-5β(H)-cholestane and 3β-alkyl-5α(H)-cholestane standards and their coinjection with petroleum fractions confirmed the structural assignments.     

Changes in bulk properties and molecular compositions within New Zealand Coal Band solvent extracts from early diagenetic to catagenetic maturity levels

The bulk properties and bitumen molecular compositions of a rank-series of 38 humic coals from the New Zealand Coal Band (Cretaceous–Cenozoic) have been analysed to investigate early maturation processes affecting coaly organic matter through diagenesis to moderate catagenesis (Rank(S_r) 0.0–11.8, R_o 0.23–0.81%). The samples comprise a relatively restricted range of vitrinite rich coal types formed largely from higher land plant material under relatively oxic conditions, but with a significant contribution from microbial biomass. With increasing rank, total organic carbon contents show a general increase, whereas moisture and asphaltene contents decrease. Bitumen yields also decrease through the stages of diagenesis and early catagenesis (Rank(S_r) < 9, R_o < 0.55%), indicating partial loss of initial bitumen during early maturation. Thermal generation of hydrocarbons begins slowly at Rank(S_r)  5–6 (R_o  0.40%) as indicated by the constant occurrence and gradual increase of isoprenoids (e.g., pristane and phytane) and hopanoids in their more mature αβ configuration. This early phase of catagenesis, not previously recognised in New Zealand coals, is followed at Rank(S_r)  9 (R_o  0.55%) by the main catagenesis phase characterised by a more rapid increase in the generation of hydrocarbons, including total n-alkanes, isoprenoids and αβ-hopanes. Changes in the maturity of New Zealand coals can be traced by the Carbon Preference Index and several hopane maturity parameters, including 22S/(22S + 22R), αβ/(αβ + βα) and ββ/(αβ + βα + ββ).     

Lasers in organic petrology and organic geochemistry, II. In-situ laser micropyrolysis-GCMS of coal macerals

The development and preliminary results of a novel laser micropyrolysis-gas chromatography, mass spectrometry (LMPy-GCMS) system are described. Short exposures of near-infra red (IR) laser radiation focused through a microscope's optics onto a specific, targeted maceral within a polymaceralic organic-rich shale or coal are used to release the thermal evaporation and pyrolysis products from the maceral. The products from multiple exposures on a single maceral type are collectively analyzed online using GCMS. This technique is intended to provide a means of chemically characterizing individual, microscopic organic entities (> 25 μm) in coals and shales without the need to physically separate them from each other (e.g. density gradient centrifugation) or from their mineral matrix (e.g. bulk analysis of kerogen concentrates). Molecular characterization of individual macerals is important in predicting the technological properties of coal and the petroleum generation potential of petroleum source rocks.Different macerals respond differently when exposed to focused near-IR laser radiation due to differences in their heat capacity and heat conduction. The thermal products released during irradiation of macerals (ulminite, alginite, sporinite and fusinite) representing the huminite, liptinite and inertinite maceral groups are presented. Under the appropriate heating, collecting, and trapping conditions, the thermal products liberated are considered representative of the macromolecular structure of the macerals. Structural elucidation of macerals in coals and shales could significantly benefit from concerted efforts of this and other in-situ micro-analytical techniques.     

Silicon isotope fractionation between plant parts in banana: In situ vs. in vitro

We recently showed that silicon isotopic fractionation in banana (Musa acuminata Colla, cv Grande Naine) was related to phytolith production, and therefore to silica content in plant. The present study focuses on isotopic fractionation between the different plant parts. Silicon isotopic compositions were measured using a Nu plasma multicollector plasma source mass spectrometer (MC–ICP–MS) operating in dry plasma mode. The results are expressed as δ²⁹Si relatively to the NBS28 standard, with an average precision and accuracy of ± 0.08‰ (± 2σ). On mature banana (Musa acuminata Colla, cv Grande Naine) from Cameroon, δ²⁹Si ranged from + 0.13‰ in the petiole to + 0.49‰ in the lamina, yielding to a 0.36‰ change towards heavier isotopic composition in the upper parts of the plant. This strongly accords with results obtained on in vitro banana plantlets cultivated in hydroponics, where the δ²⁹Si increase from pseudostems to lamina is 0.26‰. These preliminary results on in situ banana show a trend of intra-plant fractionation comparable with that of in vitro hydroponics banana plantlets and with previous data obtained on bamboo.     

Radiocaesium dispersion and fixation in the lagoon systems of “Ria de Aveiro”, Portugal

Radiocaesium (¹³⁷Cs) dispersion and Cs⁺ fixation were studied in the sediments collected from the lagoon systems of “Ria de Aveiro”. The Cs⁺ sorption was tested for the fine mica grains and for the < 2 μm clay fractions extracted from silty clays. The Cs⁺ exchange is found strongly onto mica-rich fractions than smectite-rich fractions. The distribution coefficient increases if the silty material is constituted by rich-mica clay fractions or if the non-clay minerals are removed from the silty-clay material. The samples studied behave as multisite ion exchange, where Cs⁺ engages in ion-exchange reactions with hydrated cations on planar sites on expansible layer silicates. Higher concentrations of the ¹³⁷Cs were found associated with mica-rich silty clays. The ¹³⁷Cs ranges from 3.2 to 3.9 Bq kg^− 1 in the < 38 μm fractions and from 2.9 to 3.3 Bq kg^− 1 in the < 64 μm fractions.