On overestimation of displacements in numerical calculation of zoned dams

Overestimation of displacements in numerical calculations can occur if some requirements are not met by the constitutive relations. Along with consideration for small strain behaviour of soils¹ the stiffening effects of unloading in shear should be taken into account. The latter problem is analysed in the paper using embankment dams as a typical example. Strain and stress paths in their cores and shells were derived from field measurement results and frequent path direction changes during seemingly monotonic loading process were discovered. Proportional loading test results of isotropically and anisotropically consolidated sand allowed interpretation of the in situ paths by the incremental theory of plasticity and distinction between the sections where unloading and reloading in shear develop. Furthermore, the analysis of these tests showed a marked stiffening of the soil due to unloading as well as neutral loading in shear. The strain redistribution due to material inhomogeneity, either inherent or introduced by the loading process, was identified as a common reason for the frequent occurrence of this phenomenon. Consequently, overestimations in displacement calculations can be brought about by neglecting this important effect by the constitutive model used. Accordingly, the unit response envelopes of some typical constitutive laws have been checked from this special point of view, and the models properly describing this phenomenon selected.     

An elastoplastic model with combined isotropic–kinematic hardening to predict the cyclic behavior of stiff clays

This paper presents a kinematic hardening model for describing some important features of natural stiff clays under cyclic loading conditions, such as closed hysteretic loops, smooth transition from the elastic behavior to the elastoplastic one and changes of the compression slope with loading/unloading loops. The model includes two yield surfaces, an inner surface and a bounding surface. A non-associated flow rule and a kinematic hardening law are proposed for the inner surface. The adopted hardening law enables the plastic modulus to vary smoothly when the kinematic yield surface approaches the bounding surface and ensures at the same time the non-intersection of the two yield surfaces. Furthermore, the first loading, unloading, and reloading stages are treated differently by applying distinct hardening parameters. The main feature of the model is that its constitutive equations can be simply formulated based on the consistency condition for the inner yield surface based on the proposed kinematic hardening law; thereby, this model can be easily implemented in a finite element code using a classic stress integration scheme as for the modified Cam Clay model. The simulation results on the Boom Clay, natural stiff clay, have revealed the relevance of the model: a good agreement has been obtained between simulations and the experimental results from the tests with different stress paths under cyclic loading conditions. In particular, the model can satisfactorily describe the complex case of oedometric conditions where the deviator stress is positive upon loading (compression) but can become negative upon unloading (extension).     

泥炭质土K0固结不同开挖路径应力-应变关系研究

基坑开挖过程中不同部位的土体会因不同的卸荷力学行为而表现出动态的破坏特性。为研究基坑土体开挖过程中复杂的卸荷应力路径,利用TSZ-1S应力控制式三轴仪分别对湖相沉积的泥炭质土进行固结不排水及K₀固结下的加、卸荷试验,并按侧向、轴向、轴侧向同时卸荷等不同卸荷条件制定试验方案,模拟基坑开挖过程中不同部位土体卸荷路径下的应力-应变曲线、卸荷剪切破坏时的强度及初始切线模量等的变化规律。试验结果表明：土体的应力-应变特性与应力路径密切相关,各路径下应力-应变曲线都近似呈双曲线型;卸荷剪切破坏时强度明显低于加荷破坏。对不同卸荷路径下初始切线模量(E_i)的研究发现,E_i受侧向卸荷影响较大,卸荷后E_i有所提高,轴向卸荷对其影响较小。对各应力-应变曲线进行归一化处理,构建了考虑不同归一化因子的归一化方程,以该方程为基础对不同应力路径下的泥炭质土进行归一化处理,并对结果进行了验证,效果良好。本研究可为泥炭质土场地上基坑在不同卸荷路径下的变形参数和本构关系的研究提供参考。     

基于广义塑性力学的土体次加载面循环塑性模型(Ⅱ):本构方程与验证

按广义塑性力学原理，导出了土体次加载面循环塑性模型的本构方程，建立了相应的加卸载准则以及模型参数的确定方法。通过多种应力路径下土的本构响应的模拟，表明次加载面循环塑性模型能较好地反映循环荷载作用下土体呈现的非线性、滞回性与变形的积累性三方面主要特征，初步验证了模型的有效性。     

Explicit integration of bounding surface model for the analysis of earthquake soil liquefaction

This paper presents a new plasticity model developed for the simulation of monotonic and cyclic loading of non‐cohesive soils and its implementation to the commercial finite‐difference code FLAC, using its User‐Defined‐Model (UDM) capability. The new model incorporates the framework of Critical State Soil Mechanics, while it relies upon bounding surface plasticity with a vanished elastic region to simulate the non‐linear soil response. Stress integration of constitutive relations is performed using a recently proposed explicit scheme with automatic error control and substepping, which so far has been employed in the literature only for constitutive models aiming at monotonic loading. The overall accuracy of this scheme is evaluated at element level by simulating cyclic loading along complex stress paths and by using iso‐error maps for paths involving change of the Lode angle. The performance of the new constitutive model and its stress integration scheme in complex boundary value problems involving earthquake‐induced liquefaction is evaluated, in terms of accuracy and computational cost, via a number of parametric analyses inspired by the successful simulation of the VELACS centrifuge Model Test No. 2 studying the lateral spreading response of a liquefied sand layer. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

不同应力路径下砂土的神经网络弹塑性本构模型研究

基于多种应力路径下砂土的加载、卸载和再加载过程的三轴排水试验数据，研究了三种应力路径对屈服面的影响，其结果表明，不同应力路径对砂土的本构模型有着不可忽视的作用。在此基础上，建立了砂土的弹塑性神经网络模型，对相应路径下的本构关系进行了学习。实例分析表明，该模型能够很好地描述具体应力路径下的本构关系，神经网络建模方法具有方便、容错性强的特点，对岩土力学快速、高效数值方法的进一步发展具有重要的参考价值。同时，在这种弹塑性应力-应变关系中，笔者并没有使用塑性势函数，这在目前的弹塑性本构关系的建模中是一种新的尝试。     

Mathematical modelling of monotonic and cyclic undrained clay behaviour

The proposed general analytical model describes the anisotropic, elasto-plastic, path-dependent, stress-strain-strength properties of inviscid saturated clays under undrained loading conditions. The model combines properties of isotropic and kinematic plasticity by introducing the concept of a field of plastic moduli which is defined in stress space by the relative configuration of yield surfaces. For any loading (or unloading) history, the instantaneous configuration is determined by calculating the translation and contraction (or expansion) of each yield surface. The stress-strain behaviour of clays can thus be determined for complex loading paths and in particular for cyclic loadings. The stress-strain relationships are provided for use in finite element analyses. The model parameters required to characterize the behaviour of any given clay can be derived entirely from conventional triaxial or simple shear soil test results. The model's extreme versatility is demonstrated by using it to formulate the behaviour of the Drammen clay under both monotonic and cyclic loading conditions. The parameters are determined by using solely the results from monotonic and cyclic strain-controlled simple shear experimental tests, and the model's accuracy is evaluated by applying it to predict the results of other tests such as (1) cyclic stress-controlled simple shear tests, (2) monotonic triaxial loading compression and unloading extension tests, and (3) cyclic stress- and strain-controlled triaxial tests on, this same clay. The theoretical predictions are found to agree extremely well with the experimental test results.     

Modelling of concrete response to fluctuating load

An elastoplastic constitutive model for concrete subjected to cyclic loading conditions is presented. The model is an extension of a recently proposed constitutive concept.⁷ An initial active loading process is described, using the conventional framework of the rate independent theory of plasticity. An appropriate hardening/softening parameter is introduced which allows one to model the sensitivity of material characteristics to varying confining pressure, including a smooth transition from stable to unstable response. For stress histories that include stress reversals, the formulation invokes a set of neutral loading loci defining the conditions of the neutral state.⁸ The field of hardening moduli is specified through an appropriate interpolation rule which enables one to simulate adequately the effect of cyclic degradation of the material. The performance of the model is verified for some typical cyclic loading histories, and the results are compared with existing experimental data.     

基于损伤塑性模型的地下洞室结构地震作用分析

基于损伤力学原理,通过引入损伤变量的方法,详细推导了ABAQUS中的损伤塑性本构模型,描述混凝土后继屈服阶段及其卸荷后的损伤机制和力学行为。此本构模型可考虑循环荷载条件下材料刚度退化和应变率的影响,适用于类似混凝土材料的脆性材料,如岩石等。以某水电站地下厂房洞室结构为例,进行二维动力时程非线性分析,考虑不同的刚度恢复权重因子和应变率相关性对结构损伤的影响。多个数值算例表明：洞室混凝土结构和其周围一定深度的围岩的损伤是一个渐进积累的过程;材料的率相关性效应并不是在地震动作用开始时就立即产生,而是在一段时间后,结构经历一定程度的损伤后才慢慢体现出来;此损伤塑性模型适合地震荷载等循环荷载作用下地下洞室结构的动力时程非线性分析,尤其是强震下采用此损伤塑性模型是合理和必要的。     

盐岩循环加卸载过程中的速率效应试验研究

作为一种典型软岩,盐岩力学特性的时间相关性显著,准确预测和评估盐穴储气库加卸载过程中的变形损伤能力,关系到能源储备库的长期安全稳定运行。为研究盐岩的速率效应,进行了不同加卸载速率的疲劳试验。基于现有蠕变本构模型,构建了速率效应方程,区分了加卸载过程中的蠕变塑性变形与加载塑性变形。研究结果表明：（1）盐岩的整体疲劳寿命、稳定变形阶段（即第2阶段）疲劳寿命占比基本随加卸载速率的增大而增大。（2）减速变形阶段（即第1阶段）疲劳寿命占比、稳定变形阶段平均残余应变基本随加卸载速率增大而减小。（3）速率耦合疲劳试验中,加卸载速率越大,残余应变越小,蠕变塑性变形随加卸载速率的增大而减小,当加卸载速率由0.04 kN/s增加至5 kN/s时,蠕变塑性变形在循环中的占比由85%下降至36%,呈现出负指数的关系。（4）整个循环加卸载过程中,加载塑性变形、蠕变塑性变形均呈现U型发展趋势,与盐岩疲劳过程的三阶段相对应。该研究结果可以为进一步分析盐岩蠕变塑性与加载塑性奠定基础。     

黏土的应力路径本构模型

根据黏土应力-应变曲线的特点及其应力路径的相关特性,将作者所建立的砂土应力路径本构模型扩展用于黏土,建立了黏土的应力路径本构模型,利用变换应力方法将SMP准则用于黏土的应力路径本构模型,使模型得到了合理的三维化。黏土的应力路径模型与修正剑桥模型相比,在双向加载A区和卸载D区二者完全相同;在单向加载B区和F区,两种模型均可计算塑性应变;特别是在C区和E区,黏土的应力路径模型可计算塑性应变,而修正剑桥模型的塑性应变为0。通过与修正剑桥模型比较和对藤森黏土试验结果的预测,反映了黏土应力路径本构模型描述黏土在不同应力路径条件下应力-应变特性的优越性。     

循环加-卸载岩石本构模型研究

循环加-卸载岩石本构模型是预测压气储能洞室长期稳定性的关键,但目前还没有适用的本构模型,因此,提出了一种能够描述岩石循环加载和卸载的本构模型。鉴于岩石在循环作用下损伤不断累积,将基于Weibull分布的岩石损伤软化模型进行拓展,并用内变量疲劳本构模型描述每个循环的初始模量和卸载模量的变化,进而得到循环加-卸载作用下的岩石本构模型,然后将该模型与现有的试验结果进行对比。该模型物理意义明确,涉及的参数较少,且便于拟合。提出的循环加-卸载下岩石本构模型对试验数据拟合效果较好,能较准确地反映循环荷载上、下限值对应的轴向应变,也能反映出循环内部变形模量衰减的趋势。该模型的成功建立为循环加-卸载下岩石本构模型的研究提供了新思路。     

Constitutive model for cyclic behaviour of cohesionless sands

This paper presents a constitutive model for describing the stress-strain response of sands under cyclic loading. The model, formulated using the critical state theory within the bounding surface plasticity framework, is an upgraded version of an existing model developed for monotonic behaviour of cohesionless sands. With modification of the hardening law, plastic volumetric strain increment and unloading plastic modulus, the original model was modified to simulate cyclic loading. The proposed model was validated against triaxial cyclic loading tests for Fuji River sand, Toyoura sand and Nigata sand. Comparison between the measured and predicted results suggests that the proposed modified model can capture the main features of cohesionless sands under drained and undrained cyclic loading.     

高应力卸荷条件下砂岩扩容特征及其剪胀角函数

为研究高应力水平条件下岩石卸荷扩容特性及其剪胀角变化规律,开展了若干不同初始围压水平的三轴峰前卸围压试验,同时进行了相应围压水平的常规三轴压缩试验。基于试验成果分析了卸荷应力路径对砂岩扩容的影响效应,总结了卸荷应力路径下剪胀角变化规律,进而提出了基于卸荷应力路径的剪胀角函数,并给出了其数值实现方法,最后通过对三轴峰前卸围压试验的数值模拟,验证了所提出的剪涨角函数的可行性与合理性。研究表明：（1）加载路径时,不同围压水平下峰前扩容体积应变值相差不大,而卸荷应力路径时,随着围压水平的增加,峰前扩容体积应变从最小值3.15×10?3增加到最大值9.65×10?3,卸荷路径下的峰前扩容体积应变约为加载路径的1.1～4.0倍;（2）卸荷应力路径下偏应力峰值对应的体积应变基本为0或接近于0,而加载应力路径下偏应力峰值对应的体积应变均为负值;（3）卸荷应力路径条件下峰前扩容体积应变在总扩容体积应变中所占比例显著大于加载路径;（4）两种应力路径下,剪胀角随塑性剪切应变增加均经历了先增加后减小的过程,并且低围压工况下偏应力峰值对应的剪胀角和最大剪胀角均大于高围压工况;（5）与加载路径相比,卸荷路径下的剪胀角更快达到剪胀角最大值,并且其偏应力峰值对应的剪胀角和最大剪胀角更大;（6）基于砂岩三轴卸荷试验成果,采用线性拟合方法得出了以围压和峰后塑性剪切应变增量为自变量的剪胀角函数,基于该函数与应变软化本构模型的砂岩三轴峰前卸围压试验的数值模拟结果与试验结果吻合较好,表明该函数能较好地描述三轴峰前卸围压条件下砂岩的扩容特性。以上结论可为深部地下工程变形预测、稳定性分析与支护设计提供理论基础。     

The effects of unloading on drained cyclic behaviour of Sydney sand

New excavation or tunnelling affects the stress state of soils in ground. The change of stress state due to excavation may affect the cyclic behaviour of soils. Cyclic loading, such as traffic and earthquake loading, induced ground deformation may be greater than expected if such effect is not considered. A series of cyclic triaxial tests were performed on Sydney sand with different relative densities. The effect of unloading sequence on deformation of the sand under cyclic loading was simulated by reducing lateral stress in steps between loading cycles. The dependence of strain accumulation on the magnitude of confining pressure reduction and on unloading stress paths was studied. The results indicate that the sand has a memory of stress history and the stress history of such unloading enlarges the strain accumulation during the subsequent cycles, and the greater the reduction of lateral stress, the greater the accumulated strain. Under cyclic loading, the accumulated axial strain could increase nonlinearly or linearly with the ratio of unloading magnitude to initial mean effective stress, depending on the stress state before cyclic loading. The unloading stress paths have limited effects on the final accumulated strain if the initial and final stress states are the same. The variation of strain accumulation direction attributes to the change of average stress ratio resulting from lateral stress reduction, but hardly depends on relative density and unloading stress paths. The strain accumulation direction after unloading roughly agrees with the modified Cam Clay flow rule.

     

基坑工程侧向卸、加载应力路径试验及模量计算

分析认为,基坑支护外侧的土体有可能产生侧向卸载和加载两种应力路径,因此进行了侧向卸载、加载的应力路径试验,并根据邓肯-张模型的思路和试验结果,推导了侧向卸载、加载的切线弹性模量公式。通过实例计算发现,用推导的切线弹性模量公式,可以得到很好的计算结果,这说明考虑侧向卸载、加载的应力路径的模量公式能够更好地模拟基坑问题。     

A unified bounding surface plasticity model for unsaturated soils

A unified constitutive model for unsaturated soils is presented in a critical state framework using the concepts of effective stress and bounding surface plasticity theory. Consideration is given to the effects of unsaturation and particle crushing in the definition of the critical state. A simple isotropic elastic rule is adopted. A loading surface and a bounding surface of the same shape are defined using simple and versatile functions. The bounding surface and elastic rules lead to the existence of a limiting isotropic compression line, towards which the stress trajectories of all isotropic compression load paths approach. A non‐associated flow rule of the same general form is assumed for all soil types. Isotropic hardening/softening occurs due to changes in plastic volumetric strains as well as suction for some unsaturated soils, enabling the phenomenon of volumetric collapse upon wetting to be accounted for. The model is used to simulate the stress–strain behaviour observed in unsaturated speswhite kaolin subjected to three triaxial test load paths. The fit between simulation and experiment is improved compared to that of other constitutive models developed using conventional Cam‐Clay‐based plasticity theory and calibrated using the same set of data. Also, the model is used to simulate to a high degree of accuracy the stress–strain behaviour observed in unsaturated Kurnell sand subjected to two triaxial test load paths and the oedometric compression load path. For oedometric compression theoretical simulations indicate that the suction was not sufficiently large to cause samples to separate from the confining ring. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

卸荷条件下岩石变形特征及本构模型研究

基于岩石试件的卸荷试验,研究了卸荷条件下岩石的应力—应变全过程曲线和破裂特征,研究表明：卸荷过程中岩石向卸荷方向回弹变形强烈、扩容显著、脆性破坏特征明显;卸荷条件下岩石破坏具有较强的张性破裂特征,各种级别的张裂隙发育,其剪性破裂面追随张拉裂隙发展。基于试验认识,将卸荷条件下岩石的本构模型分为4段：弹性段、卸荷屈服段、峰后脆性段及残余理想塑性段;通过体积应变εv将Griffith和Mohr Coulomb屈服准则结合起来,建立卸荷条件下岩石的屈服准则,并在应变空间建立相应的卸荷非线性屈服段本构方程;运用应变软化理论,建立卸荷岩石峰后脆性段本构方程。     

粉质黏土卸荷变形特性试验研究

依托武汉长江隧道江北明挖段基坑工程,开展了一系列的K0固结状态下原状粉质黏土卸荷应力路径排水剪三轴试验,并对卸荷变形特性进行了深入分析。分析表明：卸荷应力路径下原状粉质黏土的应力-应变关系与应力路径有着密切的关系,近似呈双曲线型。根据应力-应变曲线表现,可将卸荷应力路径分为A、B两组,A组应力路径试样表现为轴向压缩;B组应力路径试样表现为轴向伸长。卸荷应力路径下粉质黏土的应力-应变关系具有良好的归一化特性,同一应力路径下不同固结压力的应力-应变曲线可采用双曲线函数用平均固结压力归一化,但A、B两组应力路径下的归一化方程有所差别。给出了各种应力路径下的归一化方程,可为卸荷土体的变形参数及本构关系研究提供参考。     

Modeling the behavior of sandstone based on generalized plasticity concept

With the concept of generalized plasticity, a constitutive model for describing the deformation behavior of sandstone is proposed in this paper. This proposed model is characterized by the following features: (i) nonlinear elasticity under hydrostatic and shear loading; (ii) associated flow rule for pre‐peak simulation; (iii) substantial plastic deformation during shear loading; and (iv) significant shear dilation and distortion prior to the failure state. This model requires 10 material parameters, including three for elasticity and seven for plasticity. All of the parameters can be determined, in a straightforward manner, by the suggested procedures. The proposed model has been validated by comparing the triaxial test results of the Mushan sandstone under different hydrostatic stress, different stress paths, and cyclic loading condition. It is also versatile in simulating the deformation behaviors of two other sandstones. Upon slight modification of the model, the post‐peak behavior of sandstone can be reasonably predicted using proposed model. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.