WARFARE IN SUBURBIA

It is hypothesized that modern suburbia provides for greater mobility than cover in military operations. This ready penetrability gives the advantage to the attack rather than the defense. The strategic implication of this denial of current and traditional military thinking is that a Soviet attack along the Börde of Germany might progress more rapidly than presently envisaged and nullify the present NATO intention of winning time for a political solution to any conflict.     

INCIDENTS OF TERRORISM IN THE UNITED STATES, 1997–2005

ABSTRACT. The geography of terrorism remains underexplored. By focusing on the spatial patterns of terrorist attacks, the settings and land uses in which attacks occur, and the methods used to perpetrate violence, this analysis helps build a theory of terrorism geography. Between 1 January 1997 and 11 September 2005, 178 terrorist incidents occurred in the United States. Analysis of these incidents suggests three insights. At the national scale, terrorism in the United States clustered in large urban areas, with regional differentiation of terrorist motives and targets. At the scale of individual attack sites, terrorist motivations pinpointed offices, clinics, and public spaces; right‐wing violence, military, government, and infrastructural targets; and religious terrorism, commercial and special land uses. At the scale of individual interactions, terrorists crossed paths with victims in various ways. For example, the 2001 anthrax‐attack letters and lone‐wolf terrorism created alternative intersections of perpetrators with victims.     

美国在南海及周边地区的军事权力增长及军事存在演变

海洋历来是世界大国角逐的主要战场,南海因其突出的地缘战略价值也不例外。本研究借助军事权力评估模型,刻画美国在南海军事权力的增长态势,明晰美国在南海及周边地区军事存在的演变特征。结果表明：①2010—2019年,美国在南海的军事权力呈现出阶段性递增态势,可划分为2010—2016年奥巴马政府推出亚太战略时期的波动上升,以及2017—2019年特朗普政府推出印太战略时期的迅速提升两个阶段;②美国在南海及周边地区的军事存在显著增强,包括不断完善以环南海军事基地群和南海前沿军事基地群为核心的军事基地部署,加强引导双边联合军演向多边联合军演转变,着重强调“航行自由”行动的海上实战性检验以及持续强化军事侦察和情报收集的立体化网络体系构建。     

Designing a Military Event Gazetteer: The Case of Parachute Operations During the French Indochina War

The study of landscapes is an important area of research in critical military geography. Historical military campaigns themselves are violent events that occur within the context of a landscape. Although the actual events are transitory, they can leave behind a tangible record in the landscape and a memory that will be interpreted by present and future generations. Many small-scale individual operations might leave no lasting imprint on the physical landscape and are only remembered in the experience of those who participated. For these less well-known events, such as operations in colonial conflicts, their existence lies in the textual documents of memoirs, military records, and literature on the history of the associated conflicts. This study explores possible methods for designing and constructing a military event gazetteer for organizing information regarding such military operations. Parachute operations during the French Indochina War were chosen for this analysis because of the role these operations played in the counterinsurgency actions of that conflict. Using the methods developed in this study, it is proposed that through a series of military event gazetteers related to colonial wars of independence, a broader understanding of the military (or violence) aspects of the counterinsurgency strategies used in these conflicts might be achieved.     

Identifying Optimum Locations for Tropical Testing of United States Army Materiel and Systems

This paper is an example of applied military geography focusing on a particular problem arising from the Panama Canal Treaty of 1977. One of the provisions of the treaty required the United States (US) military to completely withdraw from and relinquish its military and government facilities to the Republic of Panama prior to midnight on 31 December 1999. In so doing, the US army turned over to the Panama government all of its military bases, some of which had been used since World War I to test materiel, equipment and systems within a tropical environment. Given its global mission and responsibilities, the US army has a well‐established practice of testing its materiel, equipment and systems throughout the entire range of potential operating environments. The US experience in the Pacific in World War II and in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War clearly demonstrated the need to test the performance of new equipment under the harsh conditions found in tropical jungles. Furthermore, since 1960, nearly 75 per cent of all international and internal armed conflicts have been in countries that are totally or partially in the tropics. This paper presents the findings of a scientific panel that was organised to propose a new location for testing US army materiel and systems within a tropical environment. Rather than simply choosing a location analogous to Panama, the panel sought to develop a methodology that could be employed for site selection based on any set of environmental criteria. This study is a classical locational analysis and reconfirms the integrative nature of geography and its utility for solving complex problems that cut across disciplinary boundaries.     

第一次世界大战初期德国东亚驻军跨岛链作战的军事地理分析

就军事地理环境而言,当代中国在海洋方向面临的最主要威胁来自环中国岛链的封锁,研究这一限制性地理环境对准备和实施军事活动的影响与相应对策,具有重要的现实意义。第一次世界大战（简称“一战”）初期,德国东亚驻军进行了跨岛链作战的实践,但在日本海军依托岛链和优势兵力的封锁下,其战略目标未能达成,并且出现了军事地理位置上的优劣转换。本文通过对“一战”初期德国东亚驻军跨岛链作战行动的军事地理分析,尝试提出军事地理研究思路、跨学科融合路径和分析框架。本文分析认为,彼时德占青岛虽然具有良好的战略态势和强大的军事力量,但孤悬海外,且缺乏战略纵深;从宏观的区域尺度分析来看,基地与舰队间的联系被岛链分隔,腹背受敌,军事地理上的劣势凸显。但依托岛链进行封锁,需要集结大量兵力,利用对方边缘区内作战力量相对比较薄弱的有利条件,原本实力较弱的德国东亚舰队取得了重大战果,形成反转式的“核心—边缘”结构。本文为中国的海疆安全和海洋强国建设提出了5条建议。     

海上丝路背景下南亚地缘格局的解构与再建构

印巴战略平衡是南亚地区格局形成的基础,是影响中国海上丝路地缘安全最重要的变量之一。进入21世纪以来,由于印度和巴基斯坦在经济和军事尤其是核力量方面持续不平衡增长以及美国南亚战略发生转向,持续多年的南亚地区均势走向瓦解,以中美印大三角为核心的弹性均势体系正逐步取代过去中印巴和美印巴并行的双三角体系。一个缺少制衡且向西方倾斜的印度,可能会给中国印度洋海上油路安全以及西南边疆稳定带来更多不确定性;巴基斯坦的战略处境更加困难,其作为中国与穆斯林世界桥梁、屏蔽极端势力向新疆渗透的能力会有所削弱。未来中国应积极参与南亚地区再平衡建设,在利用经济合作增进地区互信的同时,还应强化对巴基斯坦的经济和军事支持,并在南亚次大陆周边寻找更多战略立足点,谨防在西太平洋和北印度洋两个方向被美日印联合压制,力求把海上丝路沿线地缘安全风险降到最小。     

DISARMING NATURE: CONVERTING MILITARY LANDS TO WILDLIFE REFUGES*

Since 1988 the United States has closed nearly two dozen major military installations and reclassified them as national wildlife refuges. By presenting a case study of one site of military‐to‐wildlife conversion, this article examines the formation of these places and the implications of casting military practices and environmental conservation as compatible activities. As lands where military and environmental attributes can be perceived as inseparable, military‐to‐wildlife sites exemplify hybrid geographies that challenge dualistic notions of nature and society.     

Locational Concentrations of Military Retirees in the United States*

This county-level study examines the locational concentrations of the 1.6 million military retirees in the United States. Maps and multiple regression analysis suggest a strong association between concentrations of military retirees in a county and amenity- and military-related factors. In particular, proximity to a military base, mild winters, and coastal locations attract the military retiree. When counties are grouped by the age of the retirees, the proximity to bases becomes more closely associated with the younger military retirees, while climate and amenity factors are more important for the older retirees. These findings could prove useful in projecting locational preferences of the older more mobile population of the United States.     

衡山抗战军事文化旅游资源开发探索

南岳衡山是我国南方唯一的一处五岳名山,历史上也是我国南方最大的文化、宗教活动中心之一,素享"五岳独秀"、"文明奥区"、"宗教圣地"、"抗战名山"等盛名.在抗日战争中,衡山曾一度成为国民政府的军事指挥中心,留下了大量的抗战军事文化史话、遗存和胜迹等文化旅游资源.衡山抗战军事文化资源极具个性特色,拥有较高的开发利用价值.文中从衡山抗战军事文化资源形成的历史地理背景入手,全面阐述了衡山抗战军事文化资源,探讨如何把衡山"抗战名山"资源转变为现实旅游资源或现实的经济优势,提升南岳衡山生态文化旅游的品位,实现南岳衡山     

临武碉楼建筑特征及功能探析

临武碉楼是湘南地区一类独特的历史文化遗存,历史悠久,在临武乡村分布极为广泛,但目前遗存不足10座。这些建筑通常选址于村口下方数十至数百米之处的古道旁或水塘间,被当地人称为“水口”“下守”。临武碉楼外形封闭坚固,四面墙体从上而下布满了排列有序的长方形射击孔,军事防御功能明显。此外,临武人还赋予碉楼宗教神殿、书院私塾、亭台楼阁和风水守护等功能。临武碉楼为研究临武古代军事防御体系、社会文化、建筑艺术、民俗风情等提供了珍贵的实物史料,具有极高的历史、科学和艺术价值。     

Geographies of U.S. Police Militarization and the Role of the 1033 Program

Concerns about police militarization have become an important public policy issue since the aggressive police response to the 2014 protests in Ferguson, Missouri, where police officers used military-style equipment to confront protestors. This event was a stark visual reminder that many U.S. police departments have used federal programs to acquire surplus military equipment, including weapons, armored vehicles, and body armor. We explore the geographies and histories of one the most important programs, called 1033, which supplies police with military equipment under the rationale of prosecuting the War on Drugs. We show that the legal blurring of the police and the military has been ongoing for decades at the national scale but this has resulted in an uneven landscape of police militarization at the county scale. We also investigate one of the most common global arguments for why police become militarized, which is the presence of Special Weapons and Tactics-style paramilitary teams, finding little support for that claim. More geographic inquiry is needed to understand the trajectories, causes, and consequences of police militarization.     

Airfield closures and air defence reorientation in Britain during the Cold War and its immediate aftermath

Since the ending of the Cold War, over one-third of Britain's home military airfields have closed, leaving fewer than 50 in active flying use. An historical review of air force contraction since 1945 provides the context for this significant land-use change. Contrasting scales of abandonment at regional level suggest where the impacts of closures on the environment and society have been strongest. Spatial shifts in the key military airfield functions (combat, air support, training and aircraft supply) indicate a strategic reorientation of the nation's defences. Location and role data for 75 airfields either closed during the past 20 years or still active in 2008 are tabulated to assist future geographical research on British aviation and defence.     

OPERATION IRAQI FREEDOM: A MILITARY GEOGRAPHICAL PERSPECTIVE*

ABSTRACT. The war in Iraq has spanned the full spectrum of military operations: intense combat, stability‐and‐support operations, and peacetime activities. Regardless of their nature and relative intensity, military operations are shaped by the characteristics of the military operating environment. Consequently, the scale, tempo, and complexity of any type of military endeavor are linked to the physical and cultural landscapes of the region in which it is conducted. Military geographers use geographical information, tools, and techniques to examine those links. Iraq's operating environment is studied to identify the relevant components of its physical and human geography. This military geographical examination of Iraq tells us a great deal about how the physical and cultural environment have influenced the war, as well as how the complexity of its human landscape continues to affect the postwar rebuilding of the country.     

大夏国都统万城选址合理性辨析

位于毛乌素沙地南缘的统万城遗址,因其城宏伟的规模、历史上的重要地位,是学者研究历史时期生态背景、文化、政治经济的重要时空坐标。作为大夏国都,其存续时间从公元419年至公元427年,区区9年时间,可谓"兴也勃焉,亡也忽焉"。从自然环境背景、资源承载能力、军事战略地位3方面对该城的选址做了详细分析,认为该城作为大夏国都在一定程度上是不合理的。赫连勃勃勇则勇矣,将国都定在统万城却并不具有全局思维,其自然环境、资源承载能力以及军事防御能力均无法满足国都设置的条件,尤其将国都设置在战争前沿,无法达到长治久安的目的。因此,建城之后多次受到北魏军队的正面攻击,并很快被攻克,大夏国因之灭亡。统万城在历史上行政地位逐渐降低,并最终淹没在黄沙之中,是历史的必然结果。     

重大事件发生前后的海运网络动态分析（英文）

Investigating the influence of international events on global maritime networks is a challenging task that must comprehensively incorporate geographical, political, and maritime sciences. Understanding global maritime network dynamics is an initial and critical step in this investigation. This study proposes an automatic identification system(AIS)-based approach to understanding maritime network dynamics before and after international events. In this approach, a spatiotemporal modeling method is introduced to measure the similarity in shipping trends before and after international events. Then, a spatiotemporal analytic framework is proposed to understand the maritime network dynamics by grouping similar situation, and assessing possible indirect effects within a network. Finally, three case studies of international events, military conflict, lifted economic sanctions, and government elections, were used to investigate the observed network dynamics possibly affected by international events. The results indicate that container, tanker, and bulk shipping between India and its connected countries all declined more than 69% after military conflicts between India and Pakistan in August 2015. Tanker shipping between Iran and the United Arab Emirates increased 51% after economic sanctions on Iran were lifted. Container shipping between Sri Lanka and Singapore, Malaysia, and India increased more than 74% after the general election in Sri Lanka. These investigations demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed approach in assessing the possible effects of international events on maritime network dynamics.     

Maritime network dynamics before and after international events

Investigating the influence of international events on global maritime networks is a challenging task that must comprehensively incorporate geographical, political, and maritime sciences. Understanding global maritime network dynamics is an initial and critical step in this investigation. This study proposes an automatic identification system (AIS)-based approach to understanding maritime network dynamics before and after international events. In this approach, a spatiotemporal modeling method is introduced to measure the similarity in shipping trends before and after international events. Then, a spatiotemporal analytic framework is proposed to understand the maritime network dynamics by grouping similar situation, and assessing possible indirect effects within a network. Finally, three case studies of international events, military conflict, lifted economic sanctions, and government elections, were used to investigate the observed network dynamics possibly affected by international events. The results indicate that container, tanker, and bulk shipping between India and its connected countries all declined more than 69% after military conflicts between India and Pakistan in August 2015. Tanker shipping between Iran and the United Arab Emirates increased 51% after economic sanctions on Iran were lifted. Container shipping between Sri Lanka and Singapore, Malaysia, and India increased more than 74% after the general election in Sri Lanka. These investigations demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed approach in assessing the possible effects of international events on maritime network dynamics.     

蓄意攻击下全球集装箱海运网络脆弱性变化

为探究近年来全球集装箱海运网络脆弱性的变化趋势,提出了研究网络脆弱性变化度的分析思路和量化方法.基于2004和2014年两个年度的世界主要集装箱班轮公司航线分布数据,将相关港口按节点度大小排序后以1%~10%的比例逐步删除,选择删除前后的网络平均度,网络聚类系数,网络孤立节点比例,网络平均距离和网络效率等特征值的变化率作为量化指标;提出了网络压力测试方法,由此求出各特征值对网络脆弱性的影响权重及贡献值,进而得到了在设定攻击规模内集装箱海运网络脆弱性变化的量化值.研究结果表明:在蓄意攻击下,近10年的全球集装箱海运网络的脆弱性呈变差趋势;当攻击规模为整体网络的10%以内时,网络脆弱性的变差幅度约为6.1%.研究成果对于深化港口地理学研究具有重要意义,其分析思路和方法对其他领域的网络脆弱性变化趋势研究也可提供借鉴.     

特朗普政府以来的美国中东欧政策：调整、目标与展望

自“17+1合作”机制创设以来,中东欧在中欧合作中扮演的角色越来越重要。中国作为一个中东欧地区的“晚到者”,不得不面临长期以来“美、欧、俄”三方地缘博弈的影响。尤其是特朗普上任以来,一方面继承了奥巴马政府末期的中东欧政策,另一方面在能源、地缘和军事方面强化了美国的政策部署。在能源方面,美国进一步强化了将能源外交作为权力资源,平衡美欧俄关系的外交杠杆的作用。在地缘方面,波兰作为该地区的政策支轴国更加受到美国倚重。在军事方面,特朗普政府增强了在中东欧地区的军事存在和军费开支,推进驻欧美军基地的战略东移。通过对美国官方文本的文献考察发现,特朗普政府加强以上三个方面的政策部署,旨在实现以下三个政策目标：制衡俄罗斯、对欧盟分而治之和排挤中国。展望拜登政府,安全与能源仍是美国中东欧政策的首要关切。