Functioning of a karst aquifer from S Spain under highly variable climate conditions,deduced from hydrochemical records

Over a period of three hydrological years during which precipitation was highly variable, measurements of discharge, electrical conductivity, temperature and chemical components of the water at the Cañamero spring (southern Spain) were taken in order to characterise the hydrogeological functioning of the karst aquifer that it drains. The results obtained from analysis of the frequency distribution of electrical conductivity data revealed histograms with a plurimodal morphology (up to 5 modes) and a range of variation that increased with greater pluviometry during the study period. The discharge from this spring increased sharply a few days after major rainfall episodes and, when the discharge reached a value of approximately 3.73 m³/s, an overflow spring started to function. During high-water periods, there were sudden and large falls in EC, temperature and all the chemical components dissolved in the water. This high variability reflects the predominance of groundwater flow through karst drains, a typical feature of conduit flow systems. The considerable hydrochemical heterogeneity observed is caused by the mobilisation of important volumes of recharge waters from shallow areas of the aquifer (soil, epikarst) towards the discharge point, with greater participation of the unsaturated zone during high-water conditions, and a more active role played by the saturated zone during low-water conditions. In karst systems such as the one drained by the Cañamero spring, it is important to monitor several responses (hydrodynamic, hydrothermal, hydrochemical, etc.), with an appropriate sampling frequency and under different hydrometeorological conditions, in order to achieve an adequate hydrological characterisation. This is fundamental for planning, management and protection of groundwater in karst aquifers.     

环境同位素示踪的毛村地下河流域水流特征

岩溶水文特征是岩溶区生态环境可持续发展的关键驱动力。文章利用环境同位素示踪剂反馈的水动力过程,解译毛村地下河流域的水流特征。其流域内水体δD和δ¹⁸O范围均位于大气降水δD和δ¹⁸O的范围内,大气降水是流域主要的补给来源;基于δ¹³C_DIC利用质量守恒定律计算岩溶水体中DIC来源于碳酸盐岩溶解的平均值为52.13‰,可揭示相关的水—碳酸盐岩相互作用历程;流域内岩溶水点²²²Rn和EC值对大气降水的响应特征表明降水的蓄积作用可驱动深层岩溶裂隙水运移,且具有较强的稀释作用;基于²²²Rn的衰变特征,计算6月份地下河管道有效水流速度为2 427.49 m·d⁻¹;西南岩溶地下河水流与地表水流相似,且对降水响应敏感。综合毛村地下河流域的水文地质条件及其水文点SI、²²²Rn、δ¹³C_DIC和δ¹⁸O间的相关关系,环境同位素可更好地示踪岩溶裂隙水流特征,揭示岩溶含水系统的空间结构特征及水流路径。水化学环境天然示踪剂可提供有关岩溶含水系统的重要信息,对水动力学方法具有重要的补充作用。     

三峡地区泥灰质岩石斜坡带岩溶作用及其对工程稳定性的影响

泥灰质岩石岩溶是岩溶研究一个薄弱环节,将工程稳定性与岩溶作用相结合是岩溶地区地质灾害评价和治理所面临的新课题.三峡地区巴东组(T2b)泥灰质岩石的岩溶问题是新近发现的重大工程地质问题.由于构造破碎和河流切割引起岩石卸荷与松动,使岩石有利于水的渗入和岩溶作用.水是岩溶的溶剂,在峡谷斜坡地带,雨水是地表水和地下水的主要水源,地处亚热带的三峡地区雨水丰沛.通过对15个不同类型水样的化学成分测试和计算表明,雨水呈酸性,方解石的饱和指数(SI)低,具有强烈的溶蚀性,在地表和地下运移的过程中对泥灰质岩石产生了强烈的溶蚀作用.不同的地貌位置和构造层位具有不同的地表水和地下水状态,从而产生不同强度和不同形式的地表和地下岩溶.地质历史时期,岩溶作用使岩石发生成分和结构的一系列变化,从而导致岩石力学强度降低,岩体发生不均匀沉降、地裂缝、滑坡、崩塌、泥石流和地面塌陷.测试和计算还表明,不仅雨水及其转化成的地表水和地下水,而且江水和自来水均有一定的溶蚀性.将来,水的岩溶作用和水的诱发作用可能导致地基不均匀沉降、地裂缝、滑坡、崩塌、泥石流和地面塌陷,从而破坏工程稳定性.防治三峡地区地质灾害的关键在于防止水向地基的入渗.建议对三峡地区泥灰质岩石斜坡带岩溶进行深入研究.     

Characterization of the hydrogeology of the sacred Gihon Spring, Jerusalem: a deteriorating urban karst spring

The Gihon Spring, Jerusalem, is important for the major monotheistic religions. Its hydrogeology and hydrochemistry is studied here in order to understand urbanization effects on karst groundwater resources, and promote better water management. High-resolution monitoring of the spring discharge, temperature and electrical conductivity, was performed, together with chemical and bacterial analysis. All these demonstrate a rapid response of the spring to rainfall events and human impact. A complex karst system is inferred, including conduit flow, fissure flow and diffuse flow. Electrical conductivity, Na⁺ and K⁺ values (2.0 mS/cm, 130 and 50 mg/l respectively) are very high compared to other nearby springs located at the town margins (0.6 mS/cm, 15 and <1 mg/l respectively), indicating considerable urban pollution in the Gihon area. The previously cited pulsating nature of the spring was not detected during the present high-resolution monitoring. This phenomenon may have ceased due to additional water sources from urban leakage and irrigation feeding the spring. The urbanization of the recharge catchment thus affects the spring water dramatically, both chemically and hydrologically. Appropriate measures should therefore be undertaken to protect the Gihon Spring and other karst aquifers threatened by rapid urbanization.     

鄂西齐岳山地区岩溶发育特征及其对隧道涌水的影响

齐岳山地区有7种岩溶地貌类型,地下河发育受碳酸盐岩层组类型控制,管道结构单一,具有侧向补给、纵向排泄的水文地质特征。本文将齐岳山隧道分成5个区段,分别采用大气降水入渗系数法、地下径流模数法和水文地质比拟法对各区段隧道涌水进行计算预测,并对各段岩溶发育对隧道涌水影响进行了评价。      

MODFLOW-CFP软件在岩溶水系统数值模拟应用中的若干关键问题

MODFLOW-CFP软件很好地解决了管道流与含水层连续介质地下水渗流的耦合问题以及管道中水流运动的层流−紊流转换问题,为岩溶管道型地下水系统的定量研究提供了一个适用的数值模拟平台,近年来也在工程实际中得到了较多的应用。为了更好地利用和推广该软件在岩溶地下水系统定量平价和研究中的应用,避免新方法在实际应用中的盲目性,文章结合MODFLOW-CFP软件自身的特点、岩溶水系统常见的水循环特征及其在实际应用中存在的一些关键问题,从地下水数值模拟的基本要求出发,探讨如何通过一些有针对性且相对比较容易开展的野外岩溶水文地质调查、降雨−流量（水位）高分辨率监测、地下水示踪试验和综合分析研究等工作,提取MODFLOW-CFP模型所需的关键结构要素、水文地质参数以及模型识别的目标函数,进而提高复杂岩溶水系统地下水数值模型的仿真度和预测精度,推动岩溶地下水定量研究的发展。     

贵州深切峡谷区典型岩溶地下河水文水化学特征

黔中水利枢纽水源工程——平寨水库位于贵州高原三岔河深切峡谷型岩溶区,是保障黔中地区水资源安全的重要水利基础设施。文章采用水文水化学自动监测技术,对前期水文地质基础研究较为薄弱的平寨水库区间流域内的重要支流——三塘地下河系统的水文水化学变化规律进行了研究,在此基础上探讨了深切峡谷型岩溶地下河系统的岩溶发育规律及管道模式。研究结果表明,该地下河系统水化学动态主要受覆被CO₂效应、有效降雨稀释效应和径流-排泄通道开放效应三者的控制。在不同时间尺度和大气降水条件下,水化学动态的总体变化特征不同,起主导作用的效应也有所不同。水温在年尺度上呈夏季高冬季低的变化规律,日尺度上呈昼高夜低的变化规律。电导率和水中CO₂分压的动态变化,年尺度下,在覆被CO₂效应与稀释效应的共同作用下总体呈现平水期较高丰水期较低;月尺度下,降雨初期可见明显的覆被CO₂效应,降雨后则为有效降雨的稀释效应主控;在旱季无雨条件下的日尺度上,可见由径流-排泄通道的开放效应造成的水化学日动态。径流-排泄通道开放效应的识别,可为今后在岩溶水系统模型化研究中判断岩溶管道的承压状态提供水化学方面的依据。本研究对今后该区开展地表与地下水库联合调度、水资源合理利用研究提供了一定的水文地质基础。     

基于Modflow的岩溶管道概化与模拟探讨

在复杂岩溶介质中,由于岩溶形态存在小尺度的溶缝到大尺度的岩溶管道的变化,岩溶地下水流呈现为层流-紊流多种流态共存的复杂系统。对含水层中岩溶管道的准确概化是精确模拟复杂岩溶介质地下水流动的前提。在较为成熟的三维有限差分地下水流动模型（等效多孔介质）条件下寻找一种概化岩溶管道的方法,基于Modflow地下水流动模型,分别讨论模型软件中的单元渗流计算子模块（ BCF ）、排水沟子模块（ DRN ）、河流子模块（ RIV ）以及溪流子模块（ STR）对岩溶管道的概化模拟效果,发现河流子模块（ RIV）与溪流子模块（ STR）是概化岩溶管道的最优模块。     

岩溶水系统结构和水文响应机制的定量识别方法——以三峡鱼迷岩溶水系统为例

岩溶水系统结构复杂难以刻画,介质结构对地下水文特征的控制机制不清.以三峡鱼迷岩溶水系统为研究对象,利用人工示踪试验和地下水动态监测技术,建立了对流-弥散模型和扩散模型,求取了标准衰减曲线,构建了电导率和流量的高斯混合分布模型.结果表明:该系统中存在“单源单汇”、“单源多汇”和“多源单汇”3种地下水循环模式;水文事件的响应阶段地下水运动以对流为主,管道流占优势,衰减阶段则以扩散为主,裂隙流和孔隙流占优势;鱼泉洞在丰、枯水期分别识别出5种和6种地下水径流组分,以电导率180 μS/cm和流量0.6 m3/s为界,低电导率和大流量组分为快速流,其平均时间贡献占比为3.5%,径流量占比为19%.岩溶水系统中,管道和溶洞是快速流的储蓄和运移空间,空间尺寸大、开放性强、易受降雨影响;裂隙和孔隙是慢速流的储蓄和运移空间,空间尺寸小、开放性弱、对降雨有一定调蓄作用.研究可为岩溶水系统结构识别和水文机制研究提供参考,为岩溶流域水文地质调查提供理论依据.      

典型岩溶包气带洞穴滴水水文过程研究——以桂林硝盐洞为例

选取桂林丫吉试验场硝盐洞为研究对象,通过示踪试验和高分辨率水文水化学监测,确定滴水补给来源,研究典型岩溶包气带洞穴滴水对降雨响应的水文过程。研究结果表明,硝盐洞XY5滴水主要受到两种径流成分补给,即集中补给的管道流和弥散流。硝盐洞上部包气带中可能存在表层岩溶带含水层,长期维持滴水流量。滴水流量、电导率和示踪剂浓度的峰值均出现在强降雨时段,表现出快速响应的管道流特征,存在降雨阈值引起硝盐洞滴水降雨响应。降雨前岩溶含水层水分条件是包气带水文响应差异的主要原因,雨季滴水对降雨响应迅速,XY5滴水对降雨响应的滞后时间为10 h;而旱季对降雨的响应滞后明显,滞后时间达9.8天,体现了土壤和表层岩溶带的调蓄作用。74.4 mm降雨量是旱季转雨季滴水响应的降雨阈值。借助于洞穴滴水的水文动态变化和示踪试验技术对于研究包气带水文过程,深入了解岩溶含水层结构及特征,揭示岩溶区降雨入渗补给机制具有重要作用。     

岩溶缝洞系统地下水系研究

通过现场调查,获得了研究区岩溶裂隙与溶洞的发育特征;根据此特征,提出了变流量连通试验方法,并与示踪连通试验方法结合,进行了岩溶缝洞系统连通试验,分别测试了观测点流量与水样电导率随时间的变化。结果表明：研究区的岩溶裂隙与溶洞较发育;变流量连通试验方法和示踪连通试验方法相结合,可以确定岩溶缝洞系统地下水系与流体流动途径,为合理开发岩溶区地下水资源与确保水利水电等工程安全提供科学依据。     

沪蓉高速公路乌池坝隧道区岩溶发育特征及其涌水分析

乌池坝隧道区有6种岩溶地貌类型,涉及2个岩溶水系统（3条地下河）。其中白岩坝地下河发育受碳酸盐岩层组类型控制,管道结构单一,具有侧向补给、纵向排泄的水文地质特征;龙潭和毛田地下河发育受构造控制,具有多分支、多级排泄的特征。本文将乌池坝隧道分成3部分5个岩溶区段,评价了各区段岩溶发育对隧道涌水的影响,认为从ZK256＋300至ZK257＋000段,岩溶涌水可能性极大。采用大气降水入渗系数法和地下水疏干法,对各岩溶区段隧道涌水进行计算预测,其中ZK256＋300至ZK257＋500段涌水量达31．3×10^4m^3／d。[      

岩溶作用过程试验方法研究——以岩溶作用仪研制为例

通过对前人试验装置的分析,以岩溶作用原理及其影响因素为基础,结合仪器使用单位的试验需求,研制岩溶作用仪。通过分析不同的CO₂起源、岩溶发育深度、不同pH条件以及地下水循环深度的地质环境条件,提出了仪器的基本功能和适用条件,进行岩溶作用仪功能模块的论证设计和研制,并进行了验证性试验,且达到预期目标。得到如下成果：提出了四种岩溶作用模式,研制了五个岩溶作用功能模块,总结分析了功能模块与岩溶作用内在关系以及功能模块组合原则,提供不同地质环境条件下的岩溶作用试验。仪器可以实现：模拟地下水循环深度0~200 m,环境温度0~70 ℃,CO₂起源：表生、内生起源Pco₂=0.0~2.0 MPa,不同酸度背景条件：pH可控,不同水流速度条件下的沉积作用可控,岩溶裂隙张开度的沉积作用（可组合）。     

左江中游岩溶峰林区河流交互带水化学特征与控制因素

岩溶交互带是连接岩溶含水层与地表河流的重要通道,对河流和地下水水质具有重要的保护作用。本研究选取左江中游岩溶峰林区河流交互带为研究对象,在丰水期(8月下旬)和平水期(10月下旬)对交互带内机井的水化学进行现场测试分析,并结合地下水流动系统理论探讨左江两侧岩溶交互带空间分布特征和控制因素。研究结果表明:左江水的电导率(EC)较小、Ca^2+、HCO3^-浓度较低,两岸机井中增高;pH、温度、DO的变化则相反,呈现出左江高,两岸机井中降低;交互带内形成了具有DO、pH值梯度、温度梯度、Ca^2+和HCO3^-梯度的混合区。左岸岩溶区补给径流面积大,地下水流动系统范围大,流线密集,岩溶十分发育,形成岩溶管道系统;右岸为左江包围的河间地块,地下水流动系统范围小,补给面积有限,流线稀疏,岩溶发育深度和强度受到限制。左江两岸不同规模的地下水流动系统导致两岸岩溶发育强度明显不同,造成河流交互带范围的巨大差异,左岸的范围大于1000m,而右岸的范围在200m以内,左岸是右岸的5倍以上。本研究有助于左江沿岸地下水的开发利用和水质保护。     

Inferring groundwater flow and recharge from time series analysis of storm responses in a karst aquifer of southeastern Kentucky (USA)

Epigenic karst systems exhibit strong connectivity to surface recharge. In land use dominated by extensive agriculture and farming, epigenic karst aquifers are highly vulnerable to surface contaminants from point and nonpoint sources. Currently, the karstic landscapes of the southeastern Kentucky platform (USA) are impacted by agriculture and the rapid proliferation of concentrated-animal-feeding operations. Analysis of karst aquifer responses to storm events provides qualitative information regarding aquifer–recharge flow paths and groundwater residence time, and knowledge of spatial and temporal variations in recharge and flow is crucial to the understanding of the fate of surface contaminants. Time-series correlation analyses on long-term physicochemical data recorded at the outlet of Grayson Gunnar Cave, an epigenic karst system located along the Cumberland escarpment in southeastern Kentucky, revealed the existence of two separate conduit branches responding 4–8 h apart from each other. Recorded storm response times range from 4 h for flushing and dilution to 7 h for recovery. An estimated 6 million L of stored groundwater is discharged from both branches during major storms, and the fastest responding branch accounts for the majority (80%) of the groundwater reserve being discharged through the spring. As evidenced by groundwater residence time (7 days), recharge is likely characterized by localized infiltration of rain water from subsurface sinkholes to the conduit branches with no contribution of regional or lateral groundwater flow.     

岩溶洞穴交互带概念的提出及其在水资源管理中的意义

岩溶地区以管道流为主的地下水补给、径流与排泄常常引起地下水与地表水间快速且频繁的交互与转化,并因此引发水环境退化问题。文章引用并拓展地表水文学和水文生态学中交互带的概念,提出南方岩溶地区管道流与其他类型水体交互的场所为岩溶洞穴交互带,并依据交互带的水流类型和交互方式,划分为泉口交互带、天窗交互带、落水洞交互带和管道交互带4种类型;且以泉口交互带和天窗交互带为重点,采用水文和水化学在线监测、现场测试、流量测量,结合水化学、浮游生物和微生物等的分析鉴定,剖析了交互带的水文、水化学特征和水生生物群落结构及其与水环境的关系。研究发现:岩溶洞穴交互带的水文功能有弱化趋势;泉口交互带的污染物降解能力明显,水化学功能尚能发挥作用;水生生物功能在退化,主要是由水文功能弱化导致的。水文功能弱化是岩溶洞穴交互带环境功能退化的重要原因。建议在岩溶地区的水文地质和环境地质工作中重视交互带,探索交互带的探测和监测技术,通过有效管理改善交互带的环境功能。      

Regional-scale analysis of karst underground flow deduced from tracing experiments: examples from carbonate aquifers in Malaga province,southern Spain

Tracer concentration data from field experiments conducted in several carbonate aquifers (Malaga province, southern Spain) were analyzed following a dual approach based on the graphical evaluation method (GEM) and solute transport modeling to decipher flow mechanisms in karst systems at regional scale. The results show that conduit system geometry and flow conditions are the principal factors influencing tracer migration through the examined karst flow routes. Solute transport is mainly controlled by longitudinal advection and dispersion throughout the conduit length, but also by flow partitioning between mobile and immobile fluid phases, while the matrix diffusion process appears to be less relevant. The simulation of tracer breakthrough curves (BTCs) suggests that diffuse and concentrated flow through the unsaturated zone can have equivalent transport properties under extreme recharge, with high flow velocities and efficient mixing due to the high hydraulic gradients generated. Tracer mobilization within the saturated zone under low flow conditions mainly depends on the hydrodynamics (rather than on the karst conduit development), which promote a lower longitudinal advection and retardation in the tracer migration, resulting in a marked tailing effect of BTCs. The analytical advection-dispersion equation better approximates the effective flow velocity and longitudinal dispersion estimations provided by the GEM, while the non-equilibrium transport model achieves a better adjustment of most asymmetric and long-tailed BTCs. The assessment of karst underground flow properties from tracing tests at regional scale can aid design of groundwater management and protection strategies, particularly in large hydrogeological systems (i.e. transboundary carbonate aquifers) and/or in poorly investigated ones.     

川东槽谷区岩溶泉水物理化学动态特征及其环境效应研究——以重庆青木关岩溶槽谷姜家泉为例

以重庆青木关岩溶槽谷姜家泉野外观测试验基地为例,利用CTDP300多参数水质自动记录仪、NITRATAX plussc在线硝氮分析仪及HOBO小型气象站,分别对岩溶泉在不同降雨条件下水化学的动态变化特征进行了监测研究。结果表明:岩溶泉水pH值受偏酸性雨水的影响而降低;水温变化取决于降雨量、持续时间及气温等因素影响。分析认为,电导率的变化随环境的不同而不同,一般降雨环境下雨水的稀释作用仅表现在降雨的开始阶段,之后裂隙含水介质起主要作用;暴雨环境下雨水的稀释作用贯穿整个降雨过程,地下河水质主要受岩溶管道裂隙控制,水动力作用占主要地位。NO3-含量与电导率变化呈正相关,都与降雨量密切相关,从而说明降雨是导致岩溶区土壤元素流失的主要原因,也是造成岩溶山区地下水污染的重要原因。岩溶泉水化学动态变化的监测研究对于解决岩溶石山区居民的饮水、水土保持及石漠化治理具有重要意义。     

The comparison of hydrodynamic characteristics of karst aquifers: application on two karst formations in Zagros (Asmari and Ilam-Sarvak), southwest Iran

In order to study the function, hydrodynamic behavior, and hydraulic properties of the karst aquifers in Izeh, southwest Iran, time series analysis was applied to the precipitation, spring discharge, and piezometric head data of two representative karst systems of Zagros (Ilam-Sarvak and Asmari Formations). Time series analysis was applied to two karst aquifers, those of Asmari and Ilam-Sarvak Formations. The daily precipitations of anticlines were estimated based on the precipitation–elevation function which was applied on digital elevation model (DEM) of the area. The mean estimated daily precipitations were considered in bivariate time series analysis as input data of each karst system. The total length of time series was about 2.7 years, extending from May 2007 to December 2009. During the research, several one-parameter probe data loggers were installed, which daily measure the water surfaces in karst aquifers. Time series analysis was applied for describing Izeh karst aquifers with a focus on both univariate (autocorrelation and spectral analysis) and bivariate (cross-correlation, gain function, and coherency function) methods. The results show that Asmari karst aquifer in Kamarderaz Anticline has a large storage capacity. Because of lacking a well-organized karst network, in the Asmari karst aquifer, baseflow dominates with low contribution of quick-flow. In the Ilam-Sarvak karst aquifer (Shavish and Tanush Anticlines), the karstification occurred in fractures and small diameter conduits, which caused to quick-flow between dense limestone. The Ilam-Sarvak karst aquifer could be regarded as a transition between two extreme types of karst, e.g., highly karstified system and in the opposite, extremely diffused one. The analysis of well hydrograph in Ilam-Sarvak karst aquifer shows that the karst aquifer has a low storage capacity. Unlike Asmari karst aquifer, the fractures and small diameter conduits in Ilam-Sarvak karst aquifer are more enhanced, producing a better developed karst network. Contrary to the typical karst systems, however, diffuse flow and conduit flow coexist in the Asmari Formation.     

早成岩期喀斯特化研究新进展及意义

基于四川盆地多个层位的、不同岩相的碳酸盐岩具有差异岩溶特征的发现与思考,结合当今国外有关碳酸盐岩早成岩期喀斯特化研究进展的调研,进行了简单的梳理与归纳。(1)喀斯特物质基础可分为孔渗性较好的早成岩期岩石与致密的晚成岩期岩石2类。它们分别以基质粒间孔和裂缝作为岩溶水的输导介质,形成所谓的非受限管道与受限管道,从而控制了不同成岩期岩石的喀斯特形态特征,并强调不同成岩期碳酸盐岩孔渗性控制喀斯特缝洞发育模式。(2)重视不同地理环境对喀斯特化的影响,按地理环境可以分为岛屿、海岸型喀斯特和大陆型喀斯特2类:前者主要以与大气淡水透镜体相关的化学溶蚀为主,发育极具识别意义的侧翼边缘溶洞,但其影响是局部性的;后者以地表、地下河流的机械侵蚀为主,地下暗河沉积发育,其影响是区域性的。(3)重点关注目前国内涉及较少的早成岩期喀斯特的宏观与微观特征、判识标志以及溶蚀机理等研究成果。最后,结合四川盆地古生界多个层位类似早成岩期喀斯特的发现与识别,分析总结早成岩期喀斯特型储集层发育及分布特征,以期今后对类似喀斯特现象的发现、识别以及相关储集层的勘探提供参考与借鉴。