Characterization of preferential flow paths between boreholes in fractured rock using a nanoscale zero-valent iron tracer test

Recent advances in borehole geophysical techniques have improved characterization of cross-hole fracture flow. The direct detection of preferential flow paths in fractured rock, however, remains to be resolved. In this study, a novel approach using nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI or ‘nano-iron’) as a tracer was developed for detecting fracture flow paths directly. Generally, only a few rock fractures are permeable while most are much less permeable. A heat-pulse flowmeter can be used to detect changes in flow velocity for delineating permeable fracture zones in the borehole and providing the design basis for the tracer test. When nano-iron particles are released in an injection well, they can migrate through the connecting permeable fracture and be attracted to a magnet array when arriving in an observation well. Such an attraction of incoming iron nanoparticles by the magnet can provide quantitative information for locating the position of the tracer inlet. A series of field experiments were conducted in two wells in fractured rock at a hydrogeological research station in Taiwan, to test the cross-hole migration of the nano-iron tracer through permeable connected fractures. The fluid conductivity recorded in the observation well confirmed the arrival of the injected nano-iron slurry. All of the iron nanoparticles attracted to the magnet array in the observation well were found at the depth of a permeable fracture zone delineated by the flowmeter. This study has demonstrated that integrating the nano-iron tracer test with flowmeter measurement has the potential to characterize preferential flow paths in fractured rock.     

Finite element simulation of fluid flow in fractured rock media

Fluid dynamics models are used by the petroleum industry to model single- and/or multi-phase flow within fractured rock formations, in order to facilitate extraction of fluids such as oil and natural gas, and in other areas of engineering to study groundwater flow, as well as to estimate contaminant seepage and transport. In this paper, the numerical modelling software Comsol is used to simulate air and water flow through a specimen of granite with a single vertical fracture subjected to triaxial loading conditions. The intent of the model is to simulate triaxial test findings on a rock specimen with a natural fracture. Fluid flow is simulated at various confining and inlet pressures using the cubic law. Model results were in good agreement with laboratory findings. Pressure distribution along the fracture and across the specimen are as expected with a near linear pressure distribution along the length of the fracture. A drawdown effect on pressure distribution across the specimen in the vicinity of the fracture is also observed. Pressure gradient was largely uniform; however, some localised zones of high gradient along the fracture are observed.     

裂隙岩体非饱和渗流的分形模型

基于毛细吸持理论和Sierpinski空间的假定,建立了用分维数表示的毛细压力-有效饱和度及毛细压力-相对渗透系数关系的裂隙岩体非饱和渗流分形模型。根据Monte-Carlo模拟技术由平硐资料生成三维裂隙网络,利用盒维数方法计算裂隙岩体体积分维数。探讨了分维数与裂隙渗透率的关系。结合糯扎渡水利工程实例,将模型计算结果与Brook-Corey模型对比,结果表明相对渗透率主要受最大裂隙开度的影响,当裂隙开度范围不大时,分形模型可较好描述岩体裂隙的毛细压力与有效饱和度的关系。当裂隙开度范围较大时, ,忽略最大裂隙开度,模型可以等价于Brook-Corey模型。     

State of the art of modelling two-phase flow in fractured rock

 Two-phase flow in fractured rock is an important phenomenon for a range of practical problems, not the least of which is non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) contamination of groundwater. Although multiphase systems have long been studied in the petroleum field, in the hydrogeological field progress has only just reaches the point where models are being developed. Scale effect is one of the main issues of concern. Although models presented in this paper have the potential to provide useful predictions, they can only be used to investigate a variety of possible scenarios with parameters being specified in the form of distribution of values. The calibration and validation of all but the simplest of these models poses a formidable task, with great demands on hydrogeologists and geophysicists to provide adequate data. Received: 20 May 1996 · Accepted: 19 August 1996     

Numerical modelling of coupled flow and deformation in fractured rock specimens

A dual-porosity poroelastic model is extended to represent behaviour in cylindrical co-ordinates for the evaluation of flow-deformation effects in cylindrical laboratory samples incorporating a central wellbore or non-repeating axisymmetric injection on the periphery. Nine-node quadratic elements are used to represent mechanical deformation, while eight-node linear elements are used to interpolate the pressure fields, which offers significant advantages over the behaviour of other non-conforming elements. The model presented is validated against simplified analytical results, and extended to describe the behaviour of homogeneous and heterogeneous laboratory specimens subjected to controlled triaxial state of stress and injection tests. Apparent from the results is the significant influence of stress-deformation effects over system behaviour. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

裂隙岩体渗流概念模型研究

裂隙岩体中的渗流和传统的多孔介质渗流在机理上存在本质的差别,这种差别主要表现为裂隙岩体在各种尺度上存在的非均质性。模拟裂隙岩体渗流的主要困难在于描述这种非均质性。目前的概念模型,包括等效连续体模型、离散裂隙网络模型和混合模型使用了不同的技术来预测裂隙岩体中的渗流。这些模型基于不同的假设和概念框架,有着各自不同的优缺点。在实际应用时,应当根据研究域的具体特点和所要解决的问题的要求对其选择,此外,还讨论了单裂隙的概念模型。     

Application of seepage flow models to a drainage project in fractured rock

Summary Various theoretical approaches are used to model groundwater flow in fractured rock. This paper presents the application of several approaches to the restoration of the drainage of Rofla tunnel, Grisons, Switzerland. In this tunnel it became necessary to take measures against the washing out of calcium carbonates from the tunnel lining cement, because the calcium carbonate clogged up the existing drainage tubes leading to increased rock water pressures on the inside arch of the tunnel. Drainage boreholes were drilled on a section of the tunnel and their influence on the water pressures was monitored. On the basis of the geological survey different seepage flow models were established to reproduce the measured water pressures. The models were then used to predict the future water pressures acting on the tunnel lining after restoration. Thus, the efficacy of the different drainage proposals could be predicted and therefore optimised. Finally, the accuracy of the predictions is discussed and illustrated using the measurements in the test section.     

Analyzing unsaturated flow patterns in fractured rock using an integrated modeling approach

Characterizing percolation patterns in unsaturated fractured rock has posed a greater challenge to modeling investigations than comparable saturated zone studies due to the heterogeneous nature of unsaturated media and the great number of variables impacting unsaturated flow. An integrated modeling methodology has been developed for quantitatively characterizing percolation patterns in the unsaturated zone of Yucca Mountain, Nevada (USA), a proposed underground repository site for storing high-level radioactive waste. The approach integrates moisture, pneumatic, thermal, and isotopic geochemical field data into a comprehensive three-dimensional numerical model for analyses. It takes into account the coupled processes of fluid and heat flow and chemical isotopic transport in Yucca Mountain’s highly heterogeneous, unsaturated fractured tuffs. Modeling results are examined against different types of field-measured data and then used to evaluate different hydrogeological conceptualizations through analyzing flow patterns in the unsaturated zone. In particular, this model provides clearer understanding of percolation patterns and flow behavior through the unsaturated zone, both crucial issues in assessing repository performance. The integrated approach for quantifying Yucca Mountain’s flow system is demonstrated to provide a practical modeling tool for characterizing flow and transport processes in complex subsurface systems.     

Modeling spatial fracture intensity as a control on flow in fractured rock

Spatial fracture intensity (P ₃₂, fracture area by volume) is an important characteristic of a jointed rock mass. Although it can hardly ever be measured, P ₃₂ can be modeled based on available geological information such as spatial data of the fracture network. Flow in a mass composed of low-permeability hard rock is controlled by joints and fractures. In this article, models were developed from a geological data set of fractured andesite in LanYu Island (Taiwan) where a site is investigated for possible disposal of low-level and intermediate-level radionuclide waste. Three different types of conceptual models of spatial fracture intensity distribution were generated, an Enhanced Baecher’s model (EBM), a Levy–Lee Fractal model (LLFM) and a Nearest Neighborhood model (NNM). Modeling was conducted on a 10 × 10 × 10 m synthetic fractured block. Simulated flow was forced by a 1% hydraulic gradient between two vertical x–z faces of the cube (from North to South) with other boundaries set to no-flow conditions. Resulting flow vectors are very sensitive to spatial fracture intensity (P ₃₂). Flow velocity increases with higher fracture intensity (P ₃₂). R-squared values of regression analysis for the variables velocity (V/V _max) and fracture intensity (P ₃₂) are 0.293, 0.353, and 0.408 in linear fit and 0.028, 0.08, and 0.084 in power fit. Higher R ² values are positively linked with structural features but the relation between velocity and fracture intensity is non-linear. Possible flow channels are identified by stream-traces in the Levy–LeeFractal model.     

Groundwater residence times and flow paths in fractured rock determined using environmental tracers in the Mission Tunnel; Santa Barbara County,California, USA

Multiple geochemical tracers [ion chemistry, stable isotopes of water, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), tritium] and a 25-year-long record of discharge were used to understand residence times and flow paths of groundwater seeps in the fractured rock aquifer surrounding the Mission Tunnel, Santa Barbara, California. Tritium data from individual seeps indicate that seep waters are a mixture of >45-year-old (recharged prior to the nuclear bomb tests) and young groundwater. CFC data support this interpretation, however, a two-end member mixing model cannot completely explain the age tracer data. Microbial degradation and partial re-equilibration complicate the CFC signal. Spectral analysis of precipitation and groundwater seepage records shows that seepage lags precipitation by 3 months. This delay is related to the advancement of the wetting front and increasing the number of active flow paths. Additionally, the amount of seepage produced by precipitation is less during extended periods of drought than during normal or wet periods, suggesting antecedent conditions strongly affect flow through this fractured rock aquifer.     

The state of the art of numerical modeling of thermohydrologic flow in fractured rock masses

The state of the art of numerical modeling of thermohydrologic flow in fractured rock masses is reviewed and a comparative study is made of several models which have been developed in nuclear waste isolation, geothermal energy, ground water hydrology, petroleum engineering, and other geologic fields. The general review is followed by individual summaries of each model and the main characteristics of its governing equations, numerical solutions, computer codes, validations, and applications. This work was supported by the Assistant Secretary for Nuclear Energy, Office of Waste Isolation of the U. S. Department of Energy under Contract Number DE-AC03-76SF00098. Funding for this project is administered by the Office of Nuclear Waste Isolation at Battelle Memorial Institute.     

冻结饱水单裂隙岩体力学特性试验研究

通过相似单裂隙岩体冻结三轴试验,研究裂隙倾角、迹长、隙宽、围压和温度对单裂隙岩体力学特性的影响,试验结果表明：裂隙岩体力学参数与倾角呈二次函数分布,与迹长呈指数函数分布,通过拟合式（3）可近似计算岩体强度;岩体强度与围压呈线性分布,负温条件下泊松比和弹性模量受围压影响较小;隙宽小于0.1 mm或大于0.8 mm时,岩体强度随隙宽增大而减小,隙宽在0.1～0.8 mm之间时,岩体力学参数几乎不受隙宽影响;岩体强度随温度降低而增大的作用机制是岩体孔隙水和裂隙水冻结成冰,增大了颗粒间的凝聚力和摩擦角;裂隙倾角影响破裂面的起始位置,迹长影响破裂面的扩展规模,围压影响破裂面的延伸方向;倾角对岩体强度影响最大,迹长次之,温度影响最小。     

Regional evaluation of hydraulic properties in variably fractured rock using a hydrostructural domain approach

A hydrostructural domain approach was tested and validated in fractured bedrock aquifers of the Gulf Islands, British Columbia (BC), Canada. Relative potential hydraulic properties for three hydrostructural domains in folded and faulted sedimentary rocks were derived using stochastically generated fracture data and hybrid discrete fracture network-equivalent porous media (DFN-EPM) modelling. Model-derived relative potential transmissivity values show good spatial agreement with transmissivity values obtained from pumping tests at selected sites. A spatial pattern of increasing transmissivity towards the southeast along the island chain is consistent between both datasets. Cluster analysis on relative potential permeability values obtained from a larger dataset for the region identified four clusters with geometric means of 9?×?10^?13, 4?×?10^?13, 2?×?10^–13, and 3?×?10^–14 m². The general trend is an increase in relative potential permeability toward the southeast, emulating the trends identified in the site-specific analyses. Relative potential permeability values increase with proximity to the hinge line of a regional northwest-trending asymmetric fault propagation fold structure, and with proximity to superimposed high-angle north- and northeast-trending brittle faults. The results are consistent with documented patterns of structurally controlled fluid flow and show promise for use in regional characterization of fractured bedrock aquifers.     

岩体裂隙中渗流场有限元随机模拟分析

采用有限元方法数值,模拟了开度随机分布裂隙中的渗流场问题。根据给定的裂隙开度均值和标准差,随机分布生成有限元模型中的单元裂隙开度,模型中的材料参数和单元属性用ANSYS中的APDL参数化语言赋值。根据有限元随机模拟断面的流量分布和稳态渗流问题的达西定律,计算在不同裂隙开度标准差条件下的等效导水系数,研究等效导水系数与裂隙粗糙度之间的关系。数值模拟结果表明,与光滑平直的裂隙相对比,在裂隙平均开度为常数、开度随机正态分布的条件下,表面粗糙裂隙的等效导水系数略有降低;对于裂隙平均开度为0.5 mm的裂隙模型,裂隙开度标准差从0.01 mm变化到 0.2 mm,其等效导水系数变化小于5 %。传统的渗流控制方程无法精确描述地下水在粗糙裂隙中的流动特征,因为在压力水头的定义中忽略了速度项。     

预制裂隙岩样宏细观力学行为颗粒流数值模拟

为了研究双轴压缩下预制裂隙岩样宏细观力学行为及裂纹扩展模式,采用颗粒流程序（PFC）先分析平行粘结模型细观参数对宏观参数的影响,接着结合完整花岗岩常规三轴压缩试验结果对其细观参数进行标定,最后借助该组参数模拟有围压下预制裂隙（上裂隙①和下裂隙②）岩样的力学特性。研究表明：基于PFC程序和标定的参数能较好地模拟完整岩样的破坏情况;随着围压增大,双裂隙岩样的峰值强度和弹性模量均增大,且裂隙②与水平向夹角α2为90°时,两者均达到最大值;不同的α2下,各岩样的裂纹演化均经过裂纹萌生、发展和稳定等3个阶段;随着围压的降低和轴向应力的增大,颗粒间的力链破坏情况愈严重。由于拉伸力链的集中和分布不同,水平裂隙长度方向上的裂纹沿着轴向扩展,且两裂隙的贯通呈现不同方式。     

A hybrid boundary element-finite element analysis procedure for fluid flow simulation in fractured rock masses

Extension of numerical techniques to the analysis of fissure flow in three-dimensional rock masses of realistic complexity and extent constitutes an important facility in civil engineering and resource exploitation practice. Migration velocities of contaminants and fluid discharge will always be higher for a true three-dimensional network over a two-dimensional representation in that the effect of critical, out-of-plane intersections may be correctly accommodated. Revised direct boundary element formulations are developed that are capable of discretizing individual fissure discs and their intersections with adjacent fissures. Discretization coverage, by definition, is limited to the fissure edges and internal intersections, with this factor alone being a major advantage of the technique over the more conventionally utilized domain methods. Appropriate manipulation of the resulting set of equations is shown to yield a fully populated, positive definite, symmetric tensor representing the geometric conductivity of a single fissure disc. The retained degrees-of-freedom for the ‘super element’ are purely in terms of the fissure intersections with a minimum of 1 degree-of-freedom required per intersection. Global matrix assembly and solution is accomplished by standard finite element techniques, the global matrix being, in general, sparsely populated. The procedure is ideally suited to micro-computer solution in that a reduced degree-of-freedom system is obtained from a much larger and computationally, intractable system. The advantages of boundary solution procedures are realized with minimal data input requirements and effective representation of high potential gradients. The sparsely populated and symmetric from of the global matrix retains one of the more favourable assets of the secondary finite element formulation.