沙漠化:从圈层耦合到全球变化

从沙漠化概念提出伊始 ,沙漠化成因机理的研究就一直成为学术界关注的焦点。沙漠化过程究竟有多少是由自然因素所致 ,多少是由人类活动所为 ,诸因素与沙漠化之间有何内在关系 ,沙尘天气发生发展过程及其诱因等 ,当属地球系统科学应解决的难题。文章从全球变化的角度 ,将沙漠系统视作一种类生命的非线性动力系统 ,指出沙漠化源于地球表层系统各圈层之间复杂的相关与耦合作用 :气候变化是控制沙漠进退的首要因素 ;陆表水持续亏损则是导致干旱、半干旱地区沙漠化发展的直接原因 ;岩石圈构造运动塑造了不同的地形地貌单元 ,奠定了沙漠分布的地理格局 ;人类的不当活动和气候变化引起的生物生产力的衰退及土地覆盖的破坏 ,造成了现代沙漠化的快速扩张。     

Aeolian desertification and its causes in the Zoige Plateau of China’s Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau

Studies and efforts to control aeolian desertification in China have focused on the arid and semiarid lands in the north. However, the aeolian desertification that is occurring on the high-altitude Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau, which has a cold and humid climate, has received attention only in recent years. In this paper, we report the results of monitoring this aeolian desertification between 1975 and 2005 and of our analysis of its causes on the Zoige Plateau, which is located in the northeastern part of China’s Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau. Aeolian desertified lands expanded at a compound annual rate of 4.07% between 1975 and 2005. They expanded most rapidly between 1975 and 1990, at an annual rate of 7.73%. Factors responsible for this expansion include increasing temperature, decreasing precipitation, over-grazing, drainage of water systems, and land reclamation for agriculture. Increasing temperature, over-grazing, and the drainage of water systems were the key factors. The climatic variations between 1975 and 2005 were not sufficient by themselves to lead to aeolian desertification. Human disturbances such as over-grazing and drainage of water systems must thus have been primarily responsible for the observed changes, and human behavior must be adjusted to control the expansion of aeolian desertification and rehabilitate the desertified lands.     

The Iberian-Roman Humid Period (2600-1600 cal yr BP) in the Zoñar Lake varve record (Andalucía, southern Spain)

The Iberian-Roman Humid Period (IRHP, 2600-1600 cal yr BP), is the most humid phase of the last 4000 yr in southern Spain as recorded in the sedimentary sequence of Zoñar Lake (37°29′00″N, 4°41′22″ W, 300 m a.s.l.). A varve chronology supported by several AMS ¹⁴C dates allows study of the lake evolution at annual scale in response to human impact and climate changes. There are four climate phases within this period: i) gradual transition (2600-2500 yr ago, 650-550 BC) from a previous arid period; ii) the most humid interval during the Iberian-Early Roman Epoch (2500-2140 yr ago, 550-190 BC); iii) an arid interval during the Roman Empire Epoch (2140-1800 yr ago, 190 BC AD 150); and iv) a humid period synchronous with the decline of the Roman Empire (1800-1600 yr ago, AD 150-350). Varve thickness and geochemical proxies show a multi-decadal cyclicity similar to modern North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) (60, 20 years) and solar variability cycles (11 yr). The timing and the structure of this humid period is similar to that described in Eastern Mediterranean and northern European sites and supports the same large-scale climate control for northern latitudes and the Mediterranean region.     

全新世气候变化与中国北方沙漠化

气候变化是中国北方地区荒漠化形成发展的主要控制因素。新生代以来伴随着青藏高原的隆升和内陆盆地的下降逐渐形成的气候格局造就了北方地区荒漠化土地的分布。北方西部内陆盆地以干旱气候为主要特征,中部高原是受季风系统中夏季风和冬季风的消长变化影响最为显著的地区,东部地区则以暖湿气候为主,受夏季风控制。第四系以来气候的波动则控制着沙漠化的发展或逆转。末次间冰期以来一直持续的大约以1500a为周期的气候振荡对中国北方地区的沙漠化有重要的影响或控制作用。全新世以来,北方地区约在10000aBP、8000aBP、5500aBP、4000aBP、3000aBP、1500aBP的沙漠化过程分别与北大西洋第7、5、4、3、2和1次的浮冰事件相应,沙漠化扩大过程与全球气候变化的主要事件相一致。十年尺度上气候变化的周期性振荡对沙漠化有一定的影响,至少在生态环境脆弱的敏感地带对沙漠化可以起到控制作用。年际尺度上,6.7a和3.38a气候变化周期控制着我国北方地区沙尘暴的发生。此外,北方不同地区近150a以来的人类活动对沙漠化的扩大起到了重要作用。     

Rocky desertification and its causes in karst areas: a case study in Yongshun County,Hunan Province,China

Rocky desertification, a process of land degradation characterized by soil erosion and bedrock exposure, is one of the most serious land degradation problems in karst areas, and is regarded as an obstacle to local sustainable development. It is well known that human activities can accelerate rocky desertification; however, the effects of climate change on rocky desertification in karst areas are still unclear. This study focused on the effects of temperature and precipitation changes and human activities on rocky desertification in karst areas to determine the impacts of climate change and human disturbances on rocky desertification. Areas of different level of rocky desertification were obtained from Landsat TM (1987) and Landsat ETM+ (2000) images. The results show that, although the total desertification area increased by only 1.27% between 1987 and 2000, 17.73% of the slightly desertified land had degraded to a moderate or intense level, 2.01 and 15.71%, respectively. Meanwhile, between 1987 and 2000, the air temperature increased by 0.7°C, and precipitation increased by 170 mm. Statistical results indicate that the increase in precipitation was caused by heavy rainfall. In addition, under the interactive influences of heavy rainfall and temperature, the average karst dissolution rate was about 87 m³ km⁻² a⁻¹ during the 14 years in the study area. Further analysis indicated that rocky desertification was positively related with the increase in temperature and precipitation and especially with the heavy rainfall events. Climate change accelerated rocky desertification in the karst areas. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

中国西部干旱区生态环境演变与调控研究进展与展望

国家重点基础研究发展规划项目"中国西部干旱区生态环境演变与调控研究"实施 2年来,在古气候重建和环境变化,绿洲的演变规律与驱动力,绿洲水盐平衡与主要水文过程,绿洲生态系统的结构、生态过程与稳定性,山地、绿洲、荒漠三大生态系统耦合机理,生态景观演变规律及其对气候变化的响应,重大工程行为的生态环境效应,荒漠化成因及时空分布等研究方向和内容上取得了重要进展。在此基础上,项目后 2年的研究重点将继续以绿洲安全机制研究为核心,在时间序列上,重点研究近 2 000年来绿洲的形成演变规律,特别是近百年及近50年来西部干旱区气候变化与绿洲形成演变的关系,定量辨识绿洲发展演化的驱动力;在空间结构上,阐明绿洲格局的动态过程,深入探明山地、绿洲及荒漠生态系统耦合关系、绿洲生态系统稳定性机理与安全、高效、持续发展模式等;结合西部大开发工程建设和产业发展的进程,研究开发重大工程的生态环境效应,建立不同类型的生态建设示范区;配合国家重大工程时段,对西部干旱区生态环境演变趋势进行预测,提出生态系统的调控体系和管理模式,为西部开发和可持续发展服务。     

Climate change since 11.5 ka on the Diancang Massif on the southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau

The Diancang Massif is located in a region linking the Tibetan and Yungui Plateaus. Climatically, it is in a transition belt between the south and middle subtropical zones, controlled by Indian monsoon and westerlies. Thus, this study provides more evidences on the evolution of Indian monsoon since the Holocene. We reconstruct the history of climate on the Diancang Massif since 11.5 ka, using integrated correlation of glacial activities, early human settlement sites, and climate proxies abstracted from variations in grain size, magnetic susceptibility, geochemical composition, and pollen in lacustrine sediments. Six climatic stages have been identified. Stage I, from 11.5 ka to 9.0 ka, is a relatively wet period, corresponding to the onset of the Holocene; from 9.5 ka to 6.0 ka, the climate is arid; a cold period follows from 6.0 ka to 5.3 ka, and this is succeeded by a temperate stage from 5.3 ka to 4.0 ka; from 4.0 ka to 0.73 ka the climate is again arid. Compared with other regions dominated by the Indian monsoon, there is a delay in response of the climate on the Diancang Massif to the onset of the Holocene.     

Geologic weathering and its implications on the age of the sphinx

The Great Sphinx of Giza is considered by Egyptologists to have been excavated by the Pharaoh Kephren nearly 4500 years ago. Schoch and West (1991) have suggested that the Sphinx is much older, based primarily upon the rounded profile of the strata of the Sphinx thorax and the deep channels present in the walls surrounding the Sphinx ditch. These features, according to them, are due to “precipitation-induced weathering” formed when the Sahara still experienced a humid climate at least 7000 years ago. In this article we show how weathering in an arid environment can produce the rounded profile given the gradual change in lithology of the alternating hard and soft limestone strata. We show further that the channels are actually the pre-Pliocene karst features formed by underground water and exposed due to the excavation of the Sphinx ditch. We propose therefore that, for now, the Sphinx may still be regarded as of pharaonic origin. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Multivariate statistical analysis of the groundwater flow in shallow aquifers: a case of the basins of northern Algeria

Water resources in Algeria are mainly controlled by climate change which creates enormous problems in its planning, management and distribution. While the surface water resources are perfectly managed and operated by means of dams and small dams built for several years, the groundwater resources remain long unknown and unusable because of the lack of relevant working tools (e.g., methods, formulas, maps, etc.) for planners and engineers working in the field of water resources exploration. To highlight the hydrodynamic processes of groundwater in shallow aquifers of the basins of northern Algeria, we conducted a study using 81 subwatersheds collected from different locations at the basins; taking into account the climatic and geomorphological factors, to understand water usage trends, analyse patterns, tap good shallow aquifers and ensure long lasting supplies of water through arid periods, mapping and modelling of groundwater are fundamental to problem resolution. Multivariate statistical techniques as well as cluster and principal component analysis were applied to the data on groundwater flow, with the objective of defining the main controls on the groundwater flows at the basins. These statistical techniques showed the presence of three groundwater flow groups with increasing importance according to precipitation. The first group was mainly influenced by climatic factors, the second was more controlled by the communication between the surface and underground flows and the third group revealed the influence of geomorphological factors on groundwater flows.     

Lateglacial to Holocene rapid crater infilling of a MIS 2 maar volcano (West‐Eifel Volcanic Field,Germany): environmental history and geomorphological feedback mechanisms

We document the Lateglacial to Holocene sedimentation and vegetation history of a small, infilled crater landform in the West‐Eifel Volcanic Field (WEVF; western Germany). We analysed geomorphological landform change, sedimentological and geochronological data, pollen, and plant macrofossils of a 16‐m‐long sediment core from the Eichholz Maar (EHM). The EHM erupted between ～20 and 15 ka ago (MIS 2). Lacustrine siliclastic infilling was completed about 7500 years ago. Lateglacial rates of sedimentation are generally 2 to 5 times higher than in other maar lakes of the WEVF. Local factors, therefore, overprint the relative efficacy of the climate‐controlled variance of sedimentation rates at the Lateglacial/Holocene transition. The predominance of local factors relates to inherent geomorphological process–response mechanisms that were triggered by the EHM eruption. Rapid crater infilling and its completion by the mid‐Holocene are attributed to a combination of small storage capacity and geomorphological activity. A late Boreal interval of significant lake‐level fall can, however, be attributed to a period of continental‐scale climate change as recorded in other European lacustrine settings. Our findings highlight the importance of utilizing geomorphological information to reveal the relative significance of local controls as opposed to climate control when investigating small‐sized lake settings with active sediment supply systems.     

The effects of human activities on oasis climate and hydrologic environment in the Aksu River Basin,Xinjiang, China

Under the influence of human activities, the differences in climate changes emerged obviously in the Aksu Oasis. The summer air temperature in Aksu City increased at a rate of 0.20°C·(10 annum)⁻¹, while the air temperature in Aler in summer decreased at a rate of −0.27°C·(10 annum)⁻¹. Human intervention has become the dominant factor in the the changes of water resources in the Aksu Oasis. Compared with the Xidaqiao hydrological station, which is located on the upper reaches of the Aksu River, the runoff ratio at the Aler hydrological station increased in summer and decreased in spring. Though the natural water inflow has increased in the last 50 years, irrigation diversion and water consumption for human activities have increased unceasingly due to the increased reclamation of land and the development of extensive agriculture. The water quality at the Xidaqiao station is in Grade I at different periods, and the water quality at the Aler station of the Tarim River is good because the river did not suffer from human disturbance before the large-scale development of oasis agriculture; but the salinity of river water increased from 0.67 g L⁻¹ in 1960 to 5.27 g L⁻¹ in 2000 at the Aler station after farmland development, reclamation and salt washing in the oasis. The geographic distribution of surface water resources has changed due to human activities and in turn affected groundwater replenishment, bringing about changes to groundwater table and quality.     

Geomorphological evolution of the Tilcara alluvial fan (Jujuy Province, NW Argentina): Tectonic implications and palaeoenvironmental considerations

The development and evolution of the Tilcara alluvial fan, in the Quebrada de Humahuaca (Andean Eastern Cordillera, NW Argentina), has been analysed by using geomorphological mapping techniques, sedimentological characterisation of the deposits and OSL chronological methods. It is a complex segmented alluvial fan made up of five evolutionary stages (units Qf1, Qf2, Qf3, Qf4 and Qf5) developed under arid climatic environments as well as compressive tectonic conditions. Segmentation processes, including aggradation/entrenchment cycles and changes in the location of the depositional lobe, are mainly controlled by climatic and/or tectonic changes as well as channel piracy processes in the drainage system. Alluvial fan deposits include debris flows, sheet flows and braided channel facies associated with high water discharge events in an arid environment. The best mean OSL age estimated for stage Qf2 is 84.5 ± 7 ka BP. In addition, a thrust fault affecting these deposits has been recognized and, as a consequence, the compressive tectonics must date from the Upper Pleistocene in this area of the Andean Eastern Cordillera.     

Hydrogeochemical characterization and appraisal of groundwater quality for industrial purpose using a novel industrial water quality index (IndWQI) in the Guanzhong Basin,China

Life and the sustainable growth of socioeconomic sectors such as agriculture and industry depend on groundwater, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where surface water resources are limited. The objectives of the current study are to characterize groundwater chemistry and assess its suitability for industrial usage in the Guanzhong Basin located in the semi-arid region of northwest China. To better understand the hydrogeochemistry in the study area, statistical analysis, ionic plots and Pearson's correlation analysis were conjunctively used. Finally, a novel industrial water quality index (IndWQI) model was developed in this paper to determine the overall industrial water quality based on scaling, corrosion, and foaming coefficients as well as some physicochemical parameters. The contribution of each parameter to the overall industrial water quality was determined using multivariate statistical analysis approaches. The findings reveal that dissolution of minerals such as calcite, dolomite, anhydrite and gypsum regulate the groundwater geochemistry in the study area. In addition, human activities influence the groundwater quality in the study area. According to the novel IndWQI approach, 78.95 % of the confined water samples and 74.51 % of the phreatic water samples have excellent or good quality, and can be safely used for industrial boilers. The geospatial analysis shows that the most contaminated groundwater samples are mainly located in northeast Xi'an and the northeast region of the Guanzhong Basin. The IndWQI model is trustworthy, as it can combine several water quality indices and give an instantaneous impression of the whole groundwater quality for industrial uses. It can serve as a benchmark for other areas across the world with a comparable climate.     

中国沙漠化研究的理论与实践

中国的沙漠化研究的理论与实践在过去的十多年里取得了一些成果。据此,本文对沙漠化的概念、成因、过程、指征、后果、发展趋势及其治理等方面进行扼要的介绍。研究表明,沙漠化是一种人为活动与自然资源、环境不相协调所产生的以风沙活动为主要标志的土地退化过程。我国北方沙漠化土地的蔓延速率从50年代末期至70年代中期的年均1560km²发展到近十多年来的年均2100km²;实践证明,沙漠化土地作为一种土地资源可以通过合理的整治过程而恢复其原有的生产潜力。     

A high-resolution Late Holocene landscape ecological history inferred from an intramontane basin in the Western Taurus Mountains,Turkey

Late Holocene vegetation and geomorphological history is reconstructed from a 800 cm long high-resolution palynological and sedimentological record sampled from Bereket, a 6.3 km² semi-arid to sub-humid intramontane basin in the Western Taurus Mountains (southwest Turkey). The well-dated Bereket record provides from cal. 360 BC to cal. AD ∼400 a unique record of biennial-to-decadal landscape changes caused primarily by intensive human impacts against a background of global climate variations. During this period, land clearance with multiple fire episodes, intensive agricultural practices and grazing pressure profoundly altered the pre-existing warm mixed forest. Increasing moisture availability since cal. ∼280 BC has acted as a trigger to crop cultivation and mountain-adapted arboriculture starting with Juglans regia during the Beyşehir Occupation Phase. Pollen from olive groves have been recorded above 1400 m a.s.l. only at cal. ∼23 BC and have disappeared definitively at cal. AD ∼294. During this phase, the sediment accumulation rate was extremely high, reflecting landscape instability. From cal. AD 450 to recent times, the area has mainly recorded pasture and minor cultivation activities reflected in stable soils and thin colluvial depths.     

The temporal change of driving factors during the course of land desertification in arid region of North China: the case of Minqin County

Taking the key research area in the arid region of North China—Minqin County—as a case, this paper analyzes the main factors impacting land desertification. Based on factor analysis method and the collection of data in the last 50 years, this paper researches the spatial changes of driving factors during the course of land desertification in Minqin, Gansu Province. The results of factor analysis indicate that the driving force of human factor on land desertification accounted for 56.33% in 1956–2004 and for 66.19% in 1981–2004, the driving force of nature factor on land desertification accounted for 11.29% in 1956–2004 and 8.11% in 1981–2004, and the synthesis of driving forces of human and natural factors accounted for 11.19% in 1956–2004 and for 14.88% in 1981–2004. This indicated that human driving force on land desertification was increasing in Minqin County gradually.     

Aeolian desertification from the mid-1970s to 2005 in Otindag Sandy Land, Northern China

Aeolian desertification in Otindag Sandy Land has expanded dramatically during the past 50 years. This research explored processes and causes of aeolian desertification in the study area. The results showed that aeolian desertification development in Zhenglan Qi of typical region located at the center in the study area can be divided into three stages including rapid occurrence before 1987, parts of rehabilitation and most of deterioration from 1987 to 2000 and little rapid rehabilitation occurrence from 2000 to 2005, according to remote sensing images and field investigations. Gradually declining MI indicated that climate change was not the major cause of aeolian desertification development during the last 40 years, while increasing population should be the underlying cause of local aeolian desertification. Irrational human activities mainly including unsuitable reclamation in the 1960s and lasting over-grazing after 1980 are direct causes contributing to local aeolian desertification, especially over-grazing, while climate change often played a revealer of irrational human activities mainly through drought events. Over-grazing and undesirable climate have different functions during the whole aeolian desertification process. Over-grazing gradually changed grasslands to slight aeolian desertified lands at the initial stage, while climate with windy days or droughts often accelerated formation of serious aeolian desertified lands. Aeolian desertification in the study area both possesses occurrence possibility and great rehabilitative potential. At present, more integrated countermeasures combating local aeolian desertification still are expected.     

Oasis evolution and water resource utilization of a typical area in the inland river basin of an arid area: a case study of the Manas River valley

The Manas River valley is a typical inland river basin of an arid area in central Asia, and illustrates oasis evolution and economic development in this region. Based on the historical documents, monitoring data from field surveys, and remote sensing image data, this paper illustrates the oases evolution over the last 2,000 years and analyzes the rapid expansion of the Manas River oasis in the last 60 years. We also examine the relationship between oasis evolution and water resource utilization. We discuss the characteristics and effects of oasis expansion and the proposed adjustment measures for sustainable development of the Manas River valley. The principal objectives of this paper were to analyze the relationship between oasis expansion and water resource utilization over the last 60 years, and to solve the conflict between the continuous expansion of oases and a shortage of water resources to keep development of the Manas River valley sustainable. The results indicate that (1) oasis evolution in the Manas River valley over 2,000 years can be divided into three periods: a period dominated by animal husbandry, a period of semi-farming and semi-grazing, and a farming-dominated period. During the first two periods, the oasis area was limited, water conservancy facilities were poor and water utilization levels were low. In the third period, oasis expansion over the last 60 years shows a large-scale development. (2) The farming-dominated period can be subdivided into four phases according to the scale of water projects and the level of irrigation. Different oasis scales of the four phases show that artificial oasis evolution has a close connection with water resource utilization. (3) The evolution of oases in the Manas River valley raises some environmental problems although it plays an active role in promoting sustainability. Therefore, adjustment measures for the future development of oases could be proposed from the perspective of sustainable development, such as oasis scale control, forbidding reclamation, moderating exploitation of groundwater, and transforming industrial structures.     

The extent of desertification on Saudi Arabia

Desertification is the process that turns productive deserts into non-productive deserts as a result of poor land-management. Desertification reduces the ability of land to support life, affecting wild species, domestic animals, agricultural crops and humans. The reduction in plant cover that accompanies desertification leads to accelerated soil erosion by wind and water. South Africa is losing approximately 300–400 million tons of topsoil every year. As vegetation cover and soil layer are reduced, rain fall impact and run-off increases. This paper discusses the extent of desertification, its potential threat to sustained irrigated agriculture and possible measures adopted to control ongoing desertification processes to minimize the loss of agricultural productivity in an arid country such as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.     

内蒙古西部额济纳盆地土地荒漠化发展态势及其成因

为了查明额济纳盆地荒漠化的发展趋势及其成因,通过野外调查、遥感解译、样品测试及资料收集对比,从环境地质学的角度对额济纳盆地荒漠化的发展态势和成因进行了分析研究。结果表明：目前额济纳盆地土地荒漠化呈发展态势,环境在进一步恶化。认为荒漠化过程主要受区域地质环境条件变化的影响,全球气候变化、青藏高原隆升所引起的西北地区的干旱化趋势,是研究区荒漠化发生发展的决定性因素,盆地内的构造沉积背景决定着荒漠化的类型,水环境的变化直接影响着额济纳荒漠化的发生和发展速度。同时,当前人为因素对地质环境的影响很大,人类对水资源和土地资源的不合理利用,加速了荒漠化的发展速度。