Global methane emission through mud volcanoes and its past and present impact on the Earth's climate

Mud volcanism is an abundant, global phenomenon whereby fluid-rich, low-density sediments extrude both on land and offshore. Methane, which generally exceeds 90 vol% of the gas phase, is emitted at high rates during and after emplacement of the mud domes and is known for its high global warming potential (GWP). This comprehensive estimate of the annual contribution of mud volcano degassing assesses the significance of mud volcanism for the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. A first-order estimate for the earlier, pre-anthropogenic volume of methane released through mud volcanoes further supports their profound effect on the Earth's climate since at least the Paleozoic (570 Ma).     

Gases in Taiwan mud volcanoes: Chemical composition,methane carbon isotopes,and gas fluxes

Mud volcanoes are important pathways for CH₄ emission from deep buried sediments; however, the importance of gas fluxes have hitherto been neglected in atmospheric source budget considerations. In this study, gas fluxes have been monitored to examine the stability of their chemical compositions and fluxes spatially, and stable C isotopic ratios of CH₄ were determined, for several mud volcanoes on land in Taiwan. The major gas components are CH₄ (>90%), “air” (i.e. N₂ + O₂ + Ar, 1–5%) and CO₂ (1–5%) and these associated gas fluxes varied slightly at different mud volcanoes in southwestern Taiwan. The Hsiao-kun-shui (HKS) mud volcano emits the highest CH₄ concentration (CH₄ > 97%). On the other hand, the Chung-lun mud volcano (CL) shows CO₂ up to 85%, and much lower CH₄ content (<37%). High CH₄ content (>90%) with low CO₂ (<0.2%) are detected in the mud volcano gases collected in eastern Taiwan. It is suggestive that these gases are mostly of thermogenic origin based on C₁ (methane)/C₂ (ethane) + C₃ (propane) and δ¹³C_CH4 results, with the exception of mud volcanoes situated along the Gu-ting-keng (GTK) anticline axis showing unique biogenic characteristics. Only small CH₄ concentration variations, <2%, were detected in four on-site short term field-monitoring experiments, at Yue-shi-jie A, B, Kun-shui-ping and Lo-shan A. Preliminary estimation of CH₄ emission fluxes for mud volcanoes on land in Taiwan fall in a range between 980 and 2010 tons annually. If soil diffusion were taken into account, the total amount of mud volcano CH₄ could contribute up to 10% of total natural CH₄ emissions in Taiwan.     

A new estimate of global methane flux from onshore and shallow submarine mud volcanoes to the atmosphere

A new estimate of global methane emission into the atmosphere from mud volcanoes (MVs) on land and shallow seafloor is presented. The estimate, considered a lower limit, is based on 1) new direct measurements of flux, including both venting of methane and diffuse microseepage around craters and vents, and 2) a classification of MV sizes in terms of area (km²) based on a compilation of data from 120 MVs. The methane flux to the atmosphere is conservatively estimated between 6 and 9 Mt y^–1. This emission from MVs is 3–6% of the natural methane sources and is comparable with ocean and hydrate sources, officially considered in the atmospheric methane budget. The total geologic source, including MVs, seepage from seafloor, microseepage in hydrocarbon-prone areas and geothermal sources, would amount to 35–45 Mt y^–1. The authors believe it is time to add this parameter in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change official tables of atmospheric methane sources.GEM     

全球气候变化及其影响

全球气候变化及其对社会与自然系统产生的影响已日益受到全世界各国政府与广大民众的关注。与天气和气候有关的灾害给人类生命财产造成的损失日益增大,社会与生态系统似乎变得日趋脆弱。人们关心刚刚过去的20世纪的天气与气候发生了什么变化,更希望了解未来的21世纪,人类居住的地球会出现什么样的气候情景。根据一些国家和地区的观测记录、研究成果以及科学家们对气候变化的评估与预测展望,对全球气候变化问题进行概括。首先阐明20世纪地区性气候变化的事实;并根据政府间气候变化委员会(IPCC)科学技术报告中关于20世纪全球气候变化进行的总结性评估以及对21世纪全球气候变化的预测,作为阐述过去与未来全球气候变化的主要依据。同时,还介绍了一些科学家对IPCC关于全球气候变化的结论所持的不同观点或质疑。还就气候变化对社会与自然系统可能产生的影响略作论述。     

羌塘盆地现代泥火山的发现及其油气地质意义

在羌塘盆地唢呐湖地区发现现代泥火山,通过采集泥浆样、水样等样品,开展水化学离子、水溶烃类气体、碳氢氧稳定同位素等测试分析,对现代泥火山的油气地质意义进行了探讨。水化学类型和氢氧同位素表明,该地区地下可能存在油气藏;水溶烃类气体测试结果表明,气体成分为C1~C5,以甲烷为主,与常规气藏的气体成分一致;碳同位素判别结果表明,其为热解成因的油成气。结合泥火山的地质背景,表明泥火山为油气藏破坏渗漏的产物,在保存良好的未泄露地区,油气勘探具有良好前景。     

Flamingos,salt lakes and volcanoes: hunting for evidence of past climate change on the high Altiplano of Bolivia

Hidden within the vast Bolivian Altiplano are archives of past climate change in the form of remarkable carbonate rocks surrounding lakes long since disappeared. Beyond the Salar de Uyuni, the largest salt flat in the world, lies a relatively untouched realm of volcanoes and salt lakes. Ancient shorelines from intervals in the Altiplano history, when large lakes were more abundant, may hold important information about a time when the climate in this region was punctuated by much wetter phases before present day aridity took a hold. Previous studies in this region have reconstructed robust chronological timelines for such events and highlight two large lake phases over the last 18 thousand years (the Tauca and Coipasa lake phases); however higher resolution climate data are scarce. Current studies on climate proxies from smaller lakes in southern Bolivia may shed light on some of these higher resolution climate events including El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. Laminated tufa found around the palaeoshorelines of the West Lípez Lakes is one such proxy, and can be analysed to investigate the potential roles of annual versus shorter‐term climatic variation in the evolving Altiplano climate at the time.     

中国煤炭甲烷管控与减排潜力

甲烷是最主要的非二氧化碳温室气体,受到越来越多的重视。煤炭甲烷是我国最主要的甲烷排放源类型,我国也是世界煤炭甲烷排放量最大的国家,煤炭甲烷的有效排放管控与高效开发利用兼具温室气体减排、能源气体开发利用和灾害气体防治三重意义。基于系统调研和研究工作积累,概述了煤炭甲烷排放管控背景,总结了全球与代表性国家煤炭甲烷排放及其管控现状,阐释了我国煤炭甲烷开发利用与排放管控历程及发展趋势,讨论和前瞻了我国煤炭甲烷减排路径与减排潜力。已有研究工作表明:我国煤炭甲烷排放主要来自煤炭地下开采风排瓦斯,且较长时期内仍是我国煤炭甲烷的主要来源;随着我国关闭矿井增多,由此产生的关闭矿井甲烷排放量呈增长趋势,是我国煤炭甲烷不容忽视的来源。随着碳中和目标的提出,温室气体减排的政策导向逐渐成为我国煤炭甲烷排放管控的重点,明确了煤炭甲烷减排方向。我国煤炭甲烷排放管控形成了以煤层气勘探开发利用、煤矿瓦斯抽采利用、关闭/废弃矿井瓦斯抽采利用、乏风瓦斯利用等全浓度利用,煤炭采前、采中和采后全周期利用为特征的关键技术路径。我国煤炭甲烷排放管控面临巨大压力和严峻挑战,诸多政策、机制、技术问题亟待破解。突破复杂地质条件适配性煤层...     

Modelling the effects of climate change on methane emission from a northern ombrotrophic bog in Canada

Peatlands are a large potential source of methane (CH₄) to the atmosphere. In order to investigate the effects of climate change on CH₄ emission from northern ombrotrophic peatlands, a simulation model coupling water table dynamics with methane emission was developed for the Mer Bleue Bog in Ontario, Canada. The model was validated against reported values of CH₄ flux from field measurements and the model outputs exhibited high sensitivity to acrotelm thickness, leaf area index, transmissivity and slope of water table. With a 2–4°C temperature rise over the 4-year simulation period, the rate of CH₄ release dropped significantly to under 0.1 mg m⁻² day⁻¹. On the other hand, mean CH₄ emission increased by >26-fold when the increase in precipitation was >15%. When looking at the combined effects, the highest CH₄ release (13.3 mg m⁻² day⁻¹) was attained under the scenario of 2°C temperature rise and 25% precipitation increase. Results obtained in this study highlight the importance of avoiding more extreme climate change, which would otherwise lead to enhanced methane release from peatlands and further atmospheric warming through positive feedback.     

Anthropogenic factor and methane emission on the East-Siberian shelf

Results of data analysis, based on measurement of atmospheric concentrations of methane in the shallow part of the East Siberian shelf (ESS) are presented in this work. It was shown that methane emission in the atmosphere is determined not only by natural factors, but is also sensitive to anthropogenic influences, like the engine mode of a ship. It was determined that the hydraulic impact, which occurs when starting a ship’s engine after drifting through a shallow, can induce a great methane outbreak in the atmosphere. The power of these “short-lived” sources can exceed the power of any one deep-water mud volcano. In the shallow parts of the ESS, the anthropogenic factor can be one of the important factors effecting methane outbreaks in the atmosphere.     

Characteristics and developmental mechanisms of mud volcanoes on the southern margin of the Junggar Basin,NW China

Mud volcanoes have provided much meaningful information about the deep Earth and the recent crustal and neotectonic movements in an area for over 200 years. However, the triggering mechanisms have puzzled geologists for a long time. This study investigated the factors controlling mud volcano activity and the triggering mechanisms of mud volcano eruptions on the southern margin of the Junggar Basin, NW China. The Baiyanggou, Aiqigou and Dushanzi mud volcanoes are all located along the Dushanzi Anticline, which belongs to the third anticline belt on the southern margin of the basin. The extensive, thick mudstone at depth provides a wealth of material for the formation of mud volcanoes. Simultaneously, the overpressure serves as the driving force for the eruption of the mud volcanoes. The torsional–compressional stress field created by the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates not only enhanced the abnormal formational pressure in the region but also lead to the development of extensional faults in the core of the Dushanzi Anticline, which served as the conduits for the mud volcanoes. The continuous collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates and the regional torsional–compressional stress field may largely control the cyclical activity of the mud volcanoes and serve as their primary trigger mechanism. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Modelling of anisotropic coal swelling and its impact on permeability behaviour for primary and enhanced coalbed methane recovery

Coal swelling/shrinkage during gas adsorption/desorption is a well-known phenomenon. For some coals the swelling/shrinkage shows strong anisotropy, with more swelling in the direction perpendicular to the bedding than that parallel to the bedding. Experimental measurements performed in this work on an Australian coal found strong anisotropic swelling behaviour in gases including nitrogen, methane and carbon dioxide, with swelling in the direction perpendicular to the bedding almost double that parallel to the bedding. It is proposed here that this anisotropy is caused by anisotropy in the coal's mechanical properties and matrix structure. The Pan and Connell coal swelling model, which applies an energy balance approach where the surface energy change caused by adsorption is equal to the elastic energy change of the coal solid, is further developed to describe the anisotropic swelling behaviour incorporating coal property and structure anisotropy. The developed anisotropic swelling model is able to accurately describe the experimental data mentioned above, with one set of parameters to describe the coal's properties and matrix structure and three gas adsorption isotherms. This developed model is also applied to describe anisotropic swelling measurements from the literature where the model was found to provide excellent agreement with the measurement. The anisotropic coal swelling model is also applied to an anisotropic permeability model to describe permeability behaviour for primary and enhanced coalbed methane recovery. It was found that the permeability calculation applying anisotropic coal swelling differs significantly to the permeability calculated using isotropic volumetric coal swelling strain. This demonstrates that for coals with strong anisotropic swelling, anisotropic swelling and permeability models should be applied to more accurately describe coal permeability behaviour for both primary and enhanced coalbed methane recovery processes.     

近40年来青藏高原湖泊变迁及其对气候变化的响应

湖泊对气候波动有敏感记录。本文以GIS和RS技术为基础,在野外实地考察的基础上,从20世纪70年代、90年代、2000年前后和2010年前后4期Landsat遥感影像中提取了青藏高原所有湖泊边界信息,建立了青藏高原湖泊空间数据库。分析表明的青藏高原面积大于0.5 km2的湖泊总面积变化：（1）从20世纪70年代至90年代增加了13.42%; （2）从20世纪90年代至2000年前后增加了4.86%; （3）从2000年前后至2010年前后增加了13.04%。可见,近40年来,青藏高原湖泊个数和面积均呈增加的趋势。气象数据分析表明,青藏高原气候出现了由暖干向暖湿的转型,表现为气温升高、降雨量增加和蒸发量减小。笔者选取了研究区内面积大于10 km2的时间上合适做比较的所有湖泊,逐一分析了其在4个时期的动态变化情况,并根据变化结果进行了分区。不同时期的湖泊变迁具有区域差异性：（1）从20世纪70年代至90年代,西藏北部、中部、藏南、青海羌塘盆地和青海东部湖泊呈萎缩趋势; （2）20世纪90年代至2000年,青海北部湖泊萎缩; （3）2000年至2010年,除藏南外,青藏高原其余地区湖泊全面扩张。不同补给源的湖泊对气候变化的响应模式不同：（1）气温主要影响以冰雪融水及其径流为主要补给源的湖泊,如色林错、赤布张错等; （2）降雨量主要影响以大气降雨和地表径流为主要补给源的湖泊,如青海羌塘盆地; （3）蒸发量直接影响湖泊水量的散失,在青藏高原总体蒸发量减小的大环境下,部分地区因升温引起的湖泊蒸发效应超过了降水和径流量增加,湖泊出现萎缩的现象,如羊卓雍错流域。总之,地质构造控制了湖泊变迁的总格局,而短时间尺度的湖泊变迁主要受气候因素的影响。此外,湖泊动态变化还受冰川、人类活动、湖盆形状、补给和排泄区等因素的影响。     

贵州珠藏向斜无烟煤孔隙结构特征及其对吸附性的影响

通过压汞、液氮吸附实验对贵州珠藏向斜无烟煤孔隙结构特征进行研究,根据实验结果分析孔隙结构特征,并结合等温吸附试验,探讨了煤孔隙结构特征对其吸附性的影响。结果表明：珠藏向斜无烟煤主要以微孔、小孔为主,比表面积主要由微孔控制;“孔隙遮挡效应理论”能够很好地解释低退汞效率、高滞后环现象;由于测试原理不同,液氮、压汞实验结果有较大差异;研究区Langmuir体积平均为36.70 m³/t,Langmuir压力平均为3.23 MPa,Langmuir体积、Langmuir压力与微孔比表面积、退汞效率均呈现正相关;另外,Langmuir压力受微孔结构影响较大,特别是封闭孔的含量,封闭孔越多,Langmuir压力越高。     

1971-2010年内蒙古干湿变化特征及对水资源影响

利用1971-2010年内蒙古地区96个气象站的月降水量、月平均气温、月平均风速等气象资料,通过FAO Penman-Monteith 潜在蒸散量计算模型作为基础计算干湿指数,采用气候倾向率、滑动平均等数理统计方法,分析了1971-2010年内蒙古地区干湿指数的变化趋势及空间分布规律并划分出5 种干湿地区类型,探讨了干湿指数与降水量、日照时数、相对湿度等气象因子之间的关系。结果表明：近40a内蒙古地区年干湿指数呈略下降趋势,其变化倾向率为-0.003·（10a）^-1,20世纪90年代中期以来年干湿指数呈减少趋势。在地理分布上年干湿指数存在较大的差异性,自东向西逐渐递减,高值中心位于内蒙古大兴安岭东北部,低值中心在内蒙古巴丹吉林沙漠北部。在全球气候变暖的背景下,90年代后干湿指数下降明显,尤其是在内蒙古东部地区,干湿类型明显由湿向干转变,降水减少、区域增温是该地区干旱化的主要原因。内蒙古地区干湿变化主要的气候影响因子是降水量,相关系数在0.9以上,其次是日照时数、相对湿度、潜在蒸散量,相关系数在0.6~0.7之间。近10a来内蒙古地区水资源总量急剧下降,与近些年来地表干湿状况的变化有一定的关系。     

Aerosol pollution and its impact on regional climate during Holi festival inferred from ground-based and satellite remote sensing observations

In this paper, we report some salient features from a suit of special experiments that have been conducted over a coastal site (Mumbai) during February 23–March 03, 2010, encompassing an Indian festival, namely Holi, using solar radiometers and pyranometer. The results of the analysis of observations at the experimental site show higher (more than double) aerosol optical depth, water vapor, and lower down-welling short-wave radiative flux during the festival period. This is considered to be due to anthropogenic activities and associated meteorological conditions at the experimental location. To illustrate further, Angstrom parameters (alpha, denoting the aerosol size distribution, and beta, representing the loading) are examined. These parameters are found to be greater on Holi day as compared to those on the normal (control, pre-, and post-Holi) days, suggesting an increase in accumulation mode (smaller size) particle loading. The aerosol size spectra exhibited bimodal/power-law distribution with a dominant peak, modulated by anthropogenic activities, involving local and long-range transport of dust and smoke (emanated from biomass-burning) aerosols, which is consistent with MODIS satellite observations. The aerosol direct radiative forcing estimation indicated cooling at the bottom of the atmosphere.