Asymmetry in oceanic crustal structure of the South China Sea basin and its implications on mantle geodynamics

ABSTRACT

We investigated the oceanic crustal structure and lithospheric dynamics of the South China Sea (SCS) basin through a comprehensive analysis of residual gravity anomaly and bathymetry combined with seismic constraints and interpretation from geodynamic modelling. We first calculated the residual mantle Bouguer anomaly (RMBA) of the oceanic crustal regions of the SCS by removing from free-air gravity anomaly the predicted gravitational attractions of water-sediment, sediment-crust, and crust-mantle interfaces, as well as the effects of lithospheric plate cooling, using the latest crustal age constraints including IODP Expedition 349 and recent deep-tow magnetic surveys. We then calculated models of the gravity-derived crustal thickness and calibrated them using the available seismic refraction profiles of the SCS. The gravity-derived crustal thickness models correlate positively with seismically determined crustal thickness values. Our analysis revealed that the isochron-averaged RMBA are consistently more negative over the northern flank of the SCS basin than the southern conjugate for magnetic anomaly chrons C8n (~25.18 Ma) to C5Dn (~17.38 Ma), implying warmer mantle and/or thicker crust over much of the northern flank. Computational geodynamic modelling yielded the following interpretations: (1) Models of asymmetric and variable spreading rates based on the relatively high-resolution deep-tow magnetic analysis would predict alternating thicker and thinner crust at the northern flank than the southern conjugate, which is inconsistent with the observed systematically thicker crust on the northern flank. (2) Models of episodic southward ridge jumps could reproduce the observed N-S asymmetry, but only for crustal age of 23.6–20 Ma. (3) Southward migration of the SCS ridge axis would predict slightly thinner crust at the northern flank, which is inconsistent with the observations. (4) Models of higher mantle temperatures of up to 25–50°C or >2% less depleted mantle sources on the northern flank could produce large enough anomalies to explain the observed N-S asymmetries.     

Relationship between Formation of Zhongyebei Basin and Spreading of Southwest Subbasin, South China Sea

The Zhongyebei (中业北) basin (ZYBB) is an NE-striking,narrow and small sedimentary basin superimposing the southern 1/2 segment of the proposed spreading axes of the SW subbasin of the South China Sea (SCS).More than 4 500 m strata were identified in the Zhongyebei basin,including the Paleogene lower structure layer and the Neogene upper structure layer.The SW subbasin of the South China Sea has been regarded as an oceanic basin opened by seafloor spreading,as evidenced by the fiat and deep (＞ 4 000 m mostly) seafloor with linear magnetic anomalies,and by the shallow Moho depth of ＜ 12 km as estimated from gravity modeling.The classic model of seafloor spreading predicts that sediments on the oceanic crust are younger and thinner towards the spreading axes.But in the southwestern segment of the SW subbasin,contradictions appear.Firstly,the thick sedimentation in the ZYBB is along the proposed spreading axes.Secondly,the sediments are thinner (500-1 500 m) and younger away from the proposed spreading axes.Thirdly,geological elements of the two sides of spreading axes develop asymmetrically in the southwestern SW subbasin.Two models,the early opening model and the limited modeling model,are suggested for resolving this paradox.The former suggests that the opening of the SW subbasin was in Late Eocene and earlier than the oldest sediment in the ZYBB.The latter proposes that the opening of the SW subbasin was limited to its northeastern portion,and did not extend to the southwest portion.The ZYBB is a rift basin survived from the spreading but subjected to severe syn-spreading magmatic disturbance.The SW subbasin and the ZYBB of the SCS provide a unique opportunity for studying the structural evolution and dynamic mechanism at the tip of a propagating seafloor spreading.Both models have unresolved questions,and further studies are needed.     

南海重力异常特征及其显著的构造意义

在南海地区地震测深数据有限的情况下,利用重力异常可以研究南海大范围的深部地壳结构及地质构造展布特征。基于空间重力异常,结合最新的地形、沉积物厚度及地震测深等数据,分别从地震约束的莫霍面反演和无约束的三维相关成像两个视角研究南海的地壳结构,利用壳幔界面起伏、地壳厚度及三维等效密度分布来探讨地壳结构的纵横向变化。同时,联合采用延拓、水平梯度及线性构造增强滤波方法聚焦重力异常中的区域线性特征,突出显示了反映地壳横向变化的深断裂、洋陆转换边界、海盆扩张轴等线性构造的展布。重力解释与贯穿南海南北的广州-巴拉望地学断面对比表明,重力异常反演及异常的区域线性特征,较好地揭示了南海海域大范围的地壳结构与区域构造展布。     

南海南部地壳结构的重力模拟及伸展模式探讨

对南海南部地壳结构研究有助于揭示南海完整的演化历史。本研究对南海南部获取的两条多道地震剖面进行了地震 解释,并对重力数据进行了壳幔密度反演。其中 NH973-1 测线始于南海西南次海盆,覆盖了南沙中部的北段;NH973-2 测 线始于南海东部次海盆,穿越礼乐滩东侧。反演结果显示,莫霍面埋深在海盆区 10~11 km,陆缘区 15~21 km 左右,洋壳向 陆壳莫霍面深度迅速增加。海盆区厚度在 6~7 km,为典型的洋壳;陆缘区地壳厚度在 15~19 km,为减薄型地壳。进一步研 究表明(1)在西南次海盆残余扩张脊之下,莫霍面比两侧略深;(2)在礼乐滩外侧海盆区有高值重力异常体,推测为洋壳与深 部岩浆混合的块体;(3)南沙区域上地壳存在高密度带,且横向上岩性可能变化。南海南部陆缘未发现有下地壳高速层,有 比较一致的构造属性和拉张样式,为非火山型陆缘。我们对两条测线陆缘的伸展因子进行了计算,发现上地壳脆性拉伸因 子与全地壳拉伸因子存在差异,其陆缘的拉张模式在纵向上是不均匀一的。     

大地热流研究揭示的中国地壳成分横向变化

依据大地热流值、地壳厚度以及大陆壳／幔热流比与地下流体氦同位素比值的相关关系，计算出中国主要构造单元地壳生热率。同时，根据Rudnick和Fountain(1995）的数据得到地壳生热率和SiO2质量分数的线性关系，进而利用生热率数据得到地壳SiO2质量分数。此方法得到的中国东部地壳生热率和SiO2质量分数与基于地震波速的成分模型相符。中国大陆地壳生热率和SiO2质量分数横向变化明显，东部地区地壳为中性成分，相对富集强不相容元素；而西北部盆地地壳成分偏于中基性。华北、扬子和塔里木地壳成分差异较大，克拉通内部表现出明显的成分非均匀性，褶皱带地壳一般较克拉通略富长英质组分。     

南海西南次海盆基底形态特征及控制因素

本文解释了横穿南海西南次海盆的两条多道地震测线,对南海西南次海盆的基底形态特征进行了描述和分类,并讨论了基底形态与扩张速率之间的对应关系。研究结果表明,西南次海盆基底可以分为两种类型：类型1为岩浆作用主导的平坦基底,局部有岩浆侵入;类型2为构造作用主导的掀斜断块。扩张速率的计算表明：N3测线所代表的西南次海盆北东段的半扩张速率在13~36 mm/a之间周期性变化,而在NH973-1所代表的中段半扩张速率基本稳定在19 mm/a左右,未有明显变化。海盆基底的类型变化与扩张速率的对应关系明显,在扩张速率较快的区域以类型1为主,而在扩张速率慢的区域以类型2为主。西南次海盆北东段扩张速率呈现周期性变化,相应海盆基底也表现为相间排列;而西南次海盆中段的基底比较单一,以类型2为主。南海西南次海盆北东段扩张时间更久,并可能存在周期性活动的岩浆房;而海盆中段海底扩张发生较晚,岩浆作用较弱,从而造成西南次海盆从北东到南西不同的基底形态特征。     

Gravity Flow on Slope and Abyssal Systems in the Qiongdongnan Basin, Northern South China Sea

The study of new seismic data permits the identification of sediment gravity flows in terms of internal architecture and the distribution on shelf and abyssal setting in the Qiongdongnan Basin (QDNB). Six gravity flow types are recognized: (1) turbidite channels with a truncational basal and concordant overburden relationship along the shelf edge and slope, comprising laterally-shifting and vertically-aggrading channel complexes; (2) slides with a spoon-shaped morphology slip steps on the shelf-break and generated from the deformation of poorly-consolidated and high water content sediments; (3) slumps are limited on the shelf slope, triggered either by an anomalous slope gradient or by fault activity; (4) turbidite sheet complexes (TSC) were ascribed to the basin-floor fan and slope fan origin, occasionally feeding the deep marine deposits by turbidity currents; (5) sediment waves occurring in the lower slope-basin floor, and covering an area of approximately 400?km2, were generated beneath currents flowing across the sea bed; and (6) the central canyon in the deep water area represents an exceptive type of gravity flow composed of an association of debris flow, turbidite channels, and TSC. It presents planar multisegment and vertical multiphase characteristics. Turbidite associated with good petrophysical property in the canyon could be treated as a potential exploration target in the QDNB.     

南海西南次海盆深部结构研究进展与展望

西南次海盆位于南海渐进式扩张的西南端,共轭陆缘结构和残留扩张脊保留完整,是研究南海深部结构和动力学机制的关键区域。前期研究发现,西南次海盆洋陆过渡带较窄、同扩张断层发育、地震反射莫霍面不清晰、具有慢速扩张等特征。然而,由于不同探测方法获取的地壳结构具有多解性,使得西南次海盆洋陆转换过程、慢速扩张洋壳结构与增生模式以及龙门海山岩石性质与地幔成因机制等基础科学问题尚存争议。为此我们建议在西南次海盆开展地质取样获取海山岩石样品,确定其年龄与性质,分析扩张后海山形成的深部动力过程;并对关键构造部署高精度的地震反射/折射联合探测,结合岩石物理分析,对西南次海盆进行构造成像和物质组成参数正反演,以实现壳幔尺度的地震学透视,为探索西南次海盆洋陆转换过程和洋壳增生模式提供重要的地球物理证据,以丰富和完善南海的动力学演化模式。     

南海北部海底地热测量的数据处理方法

为了解南海北部地热分布特征,使用EWING型海底地热探针在3个区域进行海底地热测量,利用TK04型热导率仪测量采自3个区域的沉积物样品的热导率,并对相关数据进行一系列校正处理,获得3个代表性站位HD343、HS82、HX129的热流密度。数据分析表明:对于EWING型探针需要对原始温度记录进行偏移量校正和平衡温度计算;不同自容式温度传感器(MTL)间的相对温度偏移量是基本固定的,取决于记录器本身的性质,与测站位置无关;插入海底后,EWING型探针记录的温度随时间的变化取决于摩擦生热的大小,如果摩擦引起的温度变化小于环境温度,温度将随时间缓慢上升,否则随时间缓慢降低;室内测量的热导率经过温度和压力校正后,一般降低4％～5％;3个站位的地温梯度分别是81 ℃/km、109 ℃/km、94 ℃/km,热导率分别为0.979 W/(m·K)、0.785 W/(m·K)、0.886 W/(m·K),热流密度分别为79 mW/m²、86 mW/m²、83 mW/m²。     

Disparity between measured and BSR heat flow in the Xisha Trough of the South China Sea and its implications for the methane hydrate

We calculate the heat flow from the depth of bottom-simulating seismic reflectors (BSRs) on a seismic profile in the Xisha Trough of the South China Sea, and compare them with the probe heat flow measurements. The BSR heat flow turn out to be 32–80 mW/m², significantly lower than the measurements of 83–112 mW/m². Such big disparity cannot be ascribed only to the errors from parameters (parameter errors) that traditionally believed to influence the BSR heat flow. Besides the parameter errors, we discuss emphatically the errors coming from the theoretical assumption for the BSR heat flow determination (theoretical errors), which occur when the BSR depth does not coincide with the base of the methane hydrate stability zone (MHSZ). If BSR stays bellow the base of MHSZ, lying at the top of free gas zone, the derived heat flow would be underestimated. Compared with the parameter errors, the theoretical errors would be relatively larger in some geological settings. The disparity between measured and BSR heat flow in the Xisha Trough might be mainly due to the theoretical error. Based on the theoretical model, assuming that the BSR lying at the top of the free gas zone, the methane flux along the Xisha seismic profile is estimated, and the thickness of the methane hydrate occurrence zone is predicted.     

南海海盆IODP349钻井岩心的生热元素测试与应用研究

放射性生热率是岩石热物性参数之一,也是研究岩石圈热结构和构造热演化的重要参数。针对南海海盆区缺少岩石生热率资料的实际情况,本文通过整理和分析IODP349航次中的测井资料,测试钻井岩心样品的主要放射性生热元素,通过计算得出:玄武岩样品的生热率平均值为0.28±0.07μW/m~3,沉积碎屑岩样品的生热率为1.21±0.34μW/m~3,以及3个钻井的地热流值。获得以下认识:(1)本次研究的沉积碎屑岩样品生热率与中国东南沿海的同类岩石样品的生热率值相近,而洋壳中的基性火山岩生热率明显低于大陆碱性玄武岩。(2)用新资料计算南海西南次海盆段的岩石圈热结构得出其热岩石圈厚度约为39~42 km,平均壳幔热流比值为2.4%,说明西南次海盆岩石圈薄,海底热流主要受深部的地幔热源控制。(3)U1431D和U1433A钻井的热流密度值与附近探针热流密度值相近;而U1431C的热流密度值明显偏小,属于受地下水热循环影响所致。     

南海天然气水合物稳定带厚度分布特征

天然气水合物在未来能源、自然环境和灾害等方面具有重要的研究意义,其形成除需要充足的气源外,还与温度、压力密切相关。天然气水合物稳定带表明该地区水合物发育与分布的可能范围。以Dickens和Quinby Hunt的甲烷水合物相平衡公式为基础,从地热学角度分析南海甲烷水合物稳定带厚度及其分布特征。研究表明,南海大部分海域均具备形成天然气水合物的条件。由于受海底深度、海底温度、热流等参数的影响,在不同位置发育的水合物稳定带厚度变化较大,最大厚度可达1 100 m,位于吕宋海槽内。水合物稳定带厚度较大的区域主要呈条带状分布在南海中部和东部,大陆边缘水深500 m左右即可形成水合物,说明南海地区具有广泛的天然气水合物形成环境。天然气水合物稳定带厚度仅是水合物厚度的理论值,地层中实际的水合物发育厚度和分布特征还受到气源、构造、沉积等因素的影响。此外,岩石热导率、海底温度、热流和水深等对南海水合物稳定带厚度及其分布有影响。     

南海西南次海盆构造特征及其沉积响应

本文对穿过南海西南次海盆的逾1000 km的多道地震测线CFT剖面进行了地震界面特征的识别和地震层序的划分,分段分析了拆离断层对其减薄陆壳的拆离作用。结合前人研究成果,对南海西南次海盆地壳结构特征开展了分析,并总结了其构造特征。西南次海盆在发生陆缘张裂—海盆扩张、洋壳出现—扩张后稳定沉积这一系列过程中,可划分为4个阶段的沉积响应：A阶段(古新世之前)——前裂谷阶段,表现为地壳在拉张应力下产生小的断层;B阶段（始新世—早渐新世）——陆缘的裂谷阶段,地壳在拉张应力下拉张减薄,A阶段产生的断层出现了旋转,出现了大型掀斜的拆离断层,沉积物为同裂谷沉积,该阶段以产生了破裂不整合结束;C阶段（晚渐新世—早中新世）——海盆扩张阶段,海盆开始扩张,张应力从陆缘转移到了洋盆;D阶段（中中新世以来）——海盆扩张结束以后,以一套稳定沉积为特征。     

南海台西南盆地自生管状黄铁矿矿物学特征及其对天然气水合物的示踪意义

在南海台西南区GC10岩芯中发现了大量自生管状黄铁矿,它是海洋沉积物缺氧硫酸盐还原过程的主要产物.扫描电镜和高分辨率透射电镜测试结果显示,这些管状黄铁矿主要由草莓状黄铁矿组成,且在管内各圈层分布不均:内层主要是单个的大颗粒草莓状黄铁矿,直径为40μm左右;中间致密层为具外壳结构的草莓状黄铁矿,经后期压实作用后呈五角十二...     

Crustal Structure and Extension from Slope to Deepsea Basin in the Northern South China Sea

The newly acquired long-cable multi-channel seismic (MCS) lines were used to study the crustal structure and extension in an NW-SE elongated 150 km by 260 Van strip from the slope to the deepsea basin in the northern South China Sea (SCS).These profdes are of good penetration that Moho is recognizable in ～70% length of the lines.Seismostrattgraphic interpretation and time-depth conversion were conducted.A power function D = atb+ c was used in the time-depth conversion,which avoided the under-or over-estimation of the depths of deep-seated interfaces by cubic or quadratic polynomial functions.Contour maps of basement depth,Moho depth,crustal thickness,and crustal stretching factor were obtained for the study area.In the dip direction,the Moho depth decreases stepwisely from 28 km in the outer shelf southwards to 19,15,and 12 km in the deepsea basin,with ramps at the shelf break,lower slope,and the continent ocean boundary (COB),respectively.Accordingly,the crustal thickness decreased southwards from 3,and 7 km spectively.Under the center of the Balynn (白云) sag,the crust thins significantly to ＜ 7 kin.The crustal stretching factor βc was calculated by assuming the original crust thickness of 30 km.In the centers of the Baiyun sag,βc exceeds 5.Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic activities show a general trend of intensifying towards the COB.An important finding of this study is the along-strike variation of the crustal structure.A Moho rise extends from the COB NW-ward until the shelf break,about 170 km long and 50-100 km wide,with Moho depth ＜ 20 kin.This is called the Balyun Moho Nose,which is bounded to the east,west,and north by belts of high Moho gradients indicative of crustal or even lithospheric faults.The doming of Moho in the nose area might he the cause of the W-E segmentation of the crustal and geological structures along the slope of the northern South China Sea,and the cause of the strong crustal stretching in the Baiyun and Liwan (荔湾) sags.     

Lithospheric structure of the Southwest South China Sea: implications for rifting and extension

ABSTRACT

The South China Sea (SCS) is an excellent site for studying the process of conjugate margin rifting, and the origin and evolution of oceanic basins. Compared with the well-defined northern margin of the SCS, the western and southern segments of the SCS margin have not been researched in significant detail. To investigate the regional structure of the southwestern SCS, a gravity model is constructed, along with the lithospheric thermal structure along a wide-angle seismic profile. The profile extends across the conjugate margins of the Southwest Sub-Basin (SWSB) of the SCS and is based on the latest multiple geophysical measurements (including heat flow and thermo-physical parameters). The results show that the average thicknesses of the crust and thermal lithosphere along the profile are about 15 km and 57 km, respectively. The overall amount of extension of continental crust and lithosphere is more than 200 km. Thermal structure of the lithosphere shows that the continental margins are in a warm thermal state. The southwest SCS is characterized by ultra-wide, thinned continental crust and lithosphere, high Moho heat flow, early syn-rift faulted basins, undeformed late syn-rifting, and high seismic velocities in the lower crust. These various pieces of evidence suggest that the break-up of the mantle lithosphere occurred before that of the continental crust favouring a depth-dependent extension of the southwestern SCS margin.     

南海北部古俯冲带的位置及其对南海扩张的控制

为了确定南海北部古俯冲带的具体位置,作者利用美国LCT综合反演软件对收集到的重磁数据进行处理解释,结果显示在南海北部从台湾西南部到一统暗沙隆起,即沿南海海盆北部陆坡为一条布格重力异常水平梯度峰值带,指示了古俯冲带的具体位置;其北部的高磁异常代表了与之对应的古火山弧。深反射地震资料也验证了南海北部陆坡位置存在古俯冲带,钻井资料显示俯冲带存在的时代为晚侏罗世到早白垩世。据此绘制了南海地区晚中生代到现今的构造古地理演化图,指出南海的扩张应与晚中生代俯冲带这个先存的软弱带有关,南海海盆正是从古俯冲带的位置开始扩张。     

南海北部缘重力异常的多尺度分析及其构造讨论

重力异常是由地下各种密度不均匀体所产生的叠加效果。采用二维小波多尺度方法对南海北部缘重力异常进行分析,解译了重力异常所反映的地下源体,对南海北部缘盆地构造进行认识。通过对南海北部缘重力异常进行分解,结合研究区域地形地貌,对盆地构造和地下岩体分布等地质特征进行分析。结果显示,四阶变换逼近主要由莫霍面起伏引起,小波变换细节主要由沉积基底面的起伏引起。利用小波多尺度对重力异常进行分析具有较好的效果,值得进一步推广研究。     

南海北部陆缘地壳结构特征及其构造过程

根据“北部湾大陆缘地壳结构ＰＳ转换波测深”等地球物理测量结果,本文研究了南海北部陆缘的地壳结构特征,讨论了其白垩纪以来的构造过程。地球物理测量表明,由陆向海,南海北部陆缘地壳由陆壳、过渡壳变为洋壳,厚度由３４ｋｍ减薄至８ｋｍ左右。垂向上地壳为３层结构模式。陆壳、过渡壳和洋壳的下地壳Ｐ波速度普遍较高。地壳伸展系数的计算表明南海北部陆缘伸展主要发育于陆坡地区。结合区域地质研究,本文认为：南海北部陆缘及     

Numerical Analysis and Simulation Experiment of Lithospheric Thermal Structures in the South China Sea and the Western Pacific

The asthenosphere upwelled on a large scale in the western Pacific and South China Sea during the Cenozoic,which formed strong upward throughflow and caused the thermal structure to be changed obviously.The mathematical analysis has demonstrated that the upward throughflow velocity may have varied from 3×1011 to 6×1012 m/s.From the relationship between the lithospheric thickness and the conductive heat flux,the Hthospherie heat flux in the western Pacific should be above 30 mW/m2,which is consistent with the observed data.The huge low-speed zone within the upper mantle of the marginal sea in the western Pacific reflects that the upper mantle melts partially,flows regionally in the regional stress field,forms the upward heat flux at its bottom,and causes the change of the lithospheric thermal structure in the region.The numerical simulation result of the expansion and evolution in the South China Sea has demonstrated that in the early expansion,the upward throughflow velocity was relatively fast,and the effect that it had on the thickness of the lithosphere was relatively great,resulting in the mid-ocean basin expanding rapidly.After the formation of the ocean basin in the South China Sea,the upward throughflow velocity decreased,but the conductive heat flux was relatively high,which is close to the actual situation.Therefore,from the heat transfer point of view,this article discusses how the upward heat flux affects the lithospheric thermal structure in the western Pacific and South China Sea.The conclusions show that the upward heat throughflow at the bottom of the llthospheric mantle resulted in the tectonic deformation at the shallow crust.The intensive uplifts and rifts at the crust led to the continent cracks and the expansion in the South China Sea.