基于数字表面模型的岩体结构面产状获取

针对传统现场接触式测量获取岩体结构面参数效率低、工作量大、结果精确性受人为因素影响等问题,本文结合数字摄影测量技术与运动法（structure from motion,SFM）进行岩体三维数字表面模型重建,并在此基础上建立了岩体结构面自动识别方法。岩体数字表面模型重建步骤主要为岩体影像资料采集,基于尺度不变特征变换（Scale-Invariant Feature Transform,SIFT）算法进行图像特征匹配、稀疏点云构建、点云稠密化以及岩体曲面模型重构。结构面识别方法流程主要为:首先平滑岩体数字表面模型;通过改变搜索半径和角度阈值实现模型平面分割;基于区域生长原理进行结构面搜索;最后基于随机采样一致性拟合结构面得到结构面产状。将该方法应用于甘肃北山地下实验巷道,实现了巷道三维数字表面模型的重建与结构面产状数据获取,最后将识别到的结构面分组表征在模型表面。与人工实地测量方法以及现有的结构面识别软件相比,本文提出的方法具有良好的准确性,可为工程应用提供一定的参考。     

基于三维激光点云技术的岩体结构面智能解译

准确、高效、全面获取岩体结构面信息,对岩体的稳定性分析有着重要的意义.采用三维激光扫描设备进行岩体数据采集,基于岩体点云模型提出了结构面自动识别方法.通过对Ransac算法进行改进,引入了新的采样方法和评分准则,大大提升了Ransac算法的计算效率和提取精度,使之更好地适应粗糙不平的岩体点云数据;基于改进的Graham Scan算法可以精准描绘出结构面的凸凹边界,进而精细化计算出结构面尺寸.基于以上算法研发了结构面识别程序RDD（ransac discontinuity dtection）,并且采用了两组标准几何体数据和一组岩体数据对程序进行测试.结果表明,标准几何体产状误差在1°以内,实际岩体最大误差在6°以内,结构面尺寸最大误差率为0.278%,满足工程限定的误差要求.      

Advanced Geostructural Survey Methods Applied to Rock Mass Characterization

The location and orientation of rock discontinuities, which are traditionally obtained from geological surveys with obvious drawbacks (safety, rock face accessibility, etc.), may also be derived from a detailed and accurate photogrammetric or laser scanning survey. Selecting from the point cloud determined on the rock face a set of points distributed on a particular discontinuity, location, dip, and dip direction can be computed from the least-squares estimate of the plane interpolating the set of points. Likewise, the normal vector to the surface may be computed from an interpolation or approximation of the surface by appropriate functions. To become a real alternative (both in terms of productivity as well as accuracy) to a traditional survey, interactive or automated software tools are necessary, to allow the efficient selection of the point sets on the discontinuities or the interpretation of the normal vector pattern. After introducing the two best technologies available today for data acquisition and their performance, the paper presents an approach, based on the random sample consensus (RANSAC) procedure, to the segmentation of the point cloud into subsets, each made of points measured on a discontinuity plane of the rock face. For each subset, the plane’s equations coefficients are first determined by robust estimation and then refined by least-squares estimation after outlier removal. The segmentation algorithm has been implemented in RockScan, a software tool developed to facilitate the interaction with the point cloud in the identification of the discontinuities; rather than using the three-dimensional (3D) data, selection of regions of interest is performed on oriented images of the rock face. Finally, application of RockScan to four different test sites is discussed and results presented. The sites differ in size (from tens to hundreds of meters), rock surface characteristics, and the technology used to produce the point cloud (in three cases photogrammetry, in the fourth laser scanning), giving the opportunity to test the methodology in different contexts. In the first and in the fourth site an extensive traditional survey has been performed, providing reference data to validate the RockScan results.     

Three-dimensional slope stability analysis of South Peak, Crowsnest Pass, Alberta, Canada

South Peak is a 7-Mm³ potentially unstable rock mass located adjacent to the 1903 Frank Slide on Turtle Mountain, Alberta. This paper presents three-dimensional numerical rock slope stability models and compares them with a previous conceptual slope instability model based on discontinuity surfaces identified using an airborne LiDAR digital elevation model (DEM). Rock mass conditions at South Peak are described using the Geological Strength Index and point load tests, whilst the mean discontinuity set orientations and characteristics are based on approximately 500 field measurements. A kinematic analysis was first conducted to evaluate probable simple discontinuity-controlled failure modes. The potential for wedge failure was further assessed by considering the orientation of wedge intersections over the airborne LiDAR DEM and through a limit equilibrium combination analysis. Block theory was used to evaluate the finiteness and removability of blocks in the rock mass. Finally, the complex interaction between discontinuity sets and the topography within South Peak was investigated through three-dimensional distinct element models using the code 3DEC. The influence of individual discontinuity sets, scale effects, friction angle and the persistence along the discontinuity surfaces on the slope stability conditions were all investigated using this code.     

Close-range terrestrial digital photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning for discontinuity characterization on rock cuts

This paper reviews the application of close-range terrestrial digital photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning for discontinuity characterization on rock cuts. Terrestrial remote sensing techniques are being increasingly used as a complement to traditional scanline and window mapping methods. They provide more comprehensive information on rock cuts, allow surveying of inaccessible outcrops, and increase user safety. Selected case studies are used to estimate the accuracy of several 3D model registration approaches and the most time-, effort- and cost-effective methods are highlighted. It is shown that simple registration networks are able to provide adequate measurement of discontinuity orientation for engineering purposes. The case studies presented also illustrate the effects of sampling bias and limitations related to discontinuity characterization using remote sensing techniques. Vertical orientation bias and occlusion can be of particular concern when persistent discontinuities dip at the same angle as the camera/scanner line-of-sight. Major advantages of the techniques are presented illustrating how terrestrial remote sensing techniques provide rapid spatial measurements of discontinuity location, orientation and curvature and are well suited to the quantification of persistence magnitudes greater than 3 m.     

空间坐标系下地下岩体结构面数学描述方法初探

钻孔摄像技术能够采集到大量地下岩体内的结构面数据,分析其数据有助于进一步揭示结构面的空间分布规律和组合关系。针对钻孔内获得的结构面几何参数的特殊性,提出了综合倾角、倾向和位置深度等参数的特征点描述方法,在局部坐标系下对结构面特征点的描述方法及计算过程进行了阐述,推导出了结构面几何参数与特征点坐标之间的转换公式,在全局坐标系下对特征点坐标进行了归一化处理,最后对空间坐标系下特征点的分布规律进行了探索。研究结果表明,（1）空间坐标系下的结构面特征点是结构面几何参数和空间位置的综合反映;（2）特征点在空间的分布反映了结构面的空间组合关系。为结构面的统计分析提供新的思路和方法,有助于开展结构面的空间分布规律和交切关系研究,对钻孔摄像技术的发展和以结构面几何特征为基础的岩体稳定性评价起到积极的推动作用。     

循环荷载作用下岩石劈裂结构面剪切力学特性演化与影响因素研究

基于现有结构面剪切力学特性研究中对简单几何形态结构面研究多,天然形态结构面研究少,力学性质演化研究多,几何形态演化研究少的研究现状,通过巴西劈裂试验制备近天然形态岩石结构面,并采用模拟材料批量复制劈裂结构面试样的方法,开展循环荷载作用下岩石劈裂结构面的剪切力学特性演化规律与影响因素研究,分析法向应力、循环剪切次数、岩壁强度以及结构面粗糙度对循环剪切作用下岩体结构面力学特性和形貌特征的影响。最终通过在黏着摩擦理论-Barton经验公式中引入与循环剪切次数Nd有关的负指数假定劣化参数,提出了岩体结构面循环剪切强度公式。研究结果表明：法向应力、岩壁强度、结构面粗糙度越大,结构面的最大剪应力越大;法向应力、循环剪切次数、结构面粗糙度越大,岩壁强度越小,则归一化粗糙度参数越小。提出的循环剪切强度公式较好地验证了试验结果,可为工程安全设计提供理论参考。     

An improved Monte Carlo simulation method for discontinuity orientations based on Fisher distribution and its program implementation

Fisher distribution is the most commonly used probability density function for discontinuity orientations. Based on Fisher distribution, Monte Carlo simulation method for discontinuity orientations was reviewed and improved. Those orientations extending beyond the edge of an upper hemisphere projection (OEBEUHP) often have an important influence on both the mean orientation and Fisher constant K, thus affecting simulation results. The detailed algorithms for identifying and adjusting those OEBEUHP were developed in this paper. Based on the improved method, a program for generating discontinuity orientations and plotting their stereographic projection maps, named as MCSDO, was developed. Due to the aforementioned adjustment, the generated orientations by MCSDO are close to the original discontinuity orientations, which were mapped in field, and satisfactory. Only the original orientations and target number of generated orientations need to be input. By running the program we can directly obtain the follows: orientations of generated discontinuities, mean orientations of both original and generated discontinuities, Fisher constant K of both original and generated discontinuities, and stereographic projection maps of both original and generated discontinuities. MCSDO is a freeware designed for researchers and practicing engineers, and can be easily mastered with a little computer knowledge.     

岩质边坡复合型破坏机制的改进运动单元法研究

目前运动单元法的研究主要集中于土质边坡,未涉及到岩质边坡稳定性分析问题;而岩体中孕育有不同特性的结构面,控制着岩质边坡的力学行为。为求解结构面控制作用下岩质边坡“结构面滑移-岩桥剪断”复合型破坏问题,研究了塑性滑移区节点在岩桥内和结构面上的运动约束条件,推导了含结构面的运动单元计算公式,提出了改进运动单元法。通过经典算例的对比分析,验证了改进运动单元法计算结果的准确性。研究结果表明:岩桥位置、结构面贯通度和结构面倾角是控制岩质边坡力学行为的3个主要影响因素。岩桥越接近坡顶,改进运动单元法所得安全系数越大,而Jennings法无法反映岩桥位置的影响效应。高贯通度的结构面导致岩质边坡发生“结构面滑移-岩桥剪断”复合型破坏模式,安全系数较小;而低贯通度的结构面导致完整岩石发生破坏,安全系数较大。水平或陡倾角结构面导致滑裂面穿切结构面,安全系数较大;而对于其它倾角情况下的结构面,岩质边坡发生“结构面滑移-岩桥剪断”复合型破坏模式,安全系数较小。实例应用结果说明该方法可以有效评价岩质边坡的稳定状态,可在类似工程中应用推广。     

基于PFC2D数值试验的异性结构面剪切强度特性研究

天然岩体中广泛发育两侧岩性不同的异性结构面,开展异性结构面变形和强度特性研究旨在为岩体稳定性评价和利用提供依据。选取三峡库区侏罗系典型的砂岩-泥岩异性岩层,首先运用分形几何理论,定量计算了平直和4种不同不规则起伏形态结构面的粗糙度系数JRC值,然后基于PFC2D颗粒流程序,分别开展了以上5种形态异性结构面的数值剪切试验,获得了各形态结构面在不同正应力下的剪切应力-位移曲线。根据数值试验结果,采用巴顿的JRC-JCS模型分析了异性结构面强度特性,并与同性结构面强度性质进行对比研究。最后,在考虑异性结构面剪切破坏机制的基础上,引入强度因子的概念,提出了新的适用于异性结构面强度评价的两类改进巴顿准则。研究结果表明：异性岩体结构面抗剪强度介于相同粗糙度的两种同性结构面强度之间,在较低正应力下接近软岩同性结构面强度,符合Ⅰ型改进巴顿准则;在较高正应力下偏向硬岩同性结构面强度,符合Ⅱ型改进巴顿准则。实际工程中可利用改进准则并根据异性结构面应力状态对岩体稳定性进行评价,弥补了以往研究的不足。     

Influence of Stochastic Discontinuity Network Parameters on the Formation of Removable Blocks in Rock Slopes

Summary  We study the effects of discontinuity network parameters on the formation of removable wedges in rock slopes. Discontinuities are simulated using the Poisson disk model, and removable wedges are identified using block theory. The formation of removable wedges of different sizes is assumed to follow a Poisson process. Poisson regression and Monte Carlo simulation are then used to identify statistically relevant parameters of the model, and to study the effects that variations in their values have on formation of removable blocks. The sensitivity of the results as a function of the mean orientations of the discontinuity sets forming the blocks is also studied by means of a parametric study. The volumetric intensity of discontinuities in the rock mass is found to have a significant impact on the computed estimates of removable block formation. As predicted by theory, our results indicate that, everything else being equal, the expected rate of formation of removable wedges is proportional to the square of the intensity measure. Estimates are also sensitive to changes in discontinuity size, especially in cases in which discontinuities are smaller than one to two times the height of the slope. The interaction between the mean size of discontinuities and the coefficient of variation of discontinuity sizes is found to be significant as well. Finally, results of our sensitivity analysis suggest that the orientation of discontinuity sets significantly affects the rate of formation of removable blocks in rock slopes. Author’s address: Dr. Rafael Jimenez-Rodriguez, ETS Ing. de Caminos, Canales y Puertos. Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Spain     

基于单个钻孔孔壁电视图像确定地下岩体结构面产状的普适数学方法

岩体结构面产状是影响岩体力学性质及工程稳定性的重要地质因素.从钻孔孔壁电视平展图上可较精确地提取结构面迹线上不共线三点的相对二维坐标(d, h),再利用空间解析几何理论确定其三维空间相对坐标(x, y, z),并求得结构面法向矢量.根据钻孔孔壁与坡面及结构面产状的空间几何关系,在保持原点不变的情况下,采用空间坐标变换的方法,将三维坐标系z轴和y轴分别转化为竖直方向z′和正北地理方向y′,并确定转化后坐标系空间的结构面法向矢量.再从结构面产状的定义出发,根据结构面法向矢量与结构面倾向、倾角的相关性,建立了一个空间几何模型,通过该模型可求得任意平直坡面上任一钻孔内局部岩体结构面的产状.      

Evaluating roadside rockmasses for rockfall hazards using LiDAR data: optimizing data collection and processing protocols

Highways and railroads situated within rugged terrain are often subjected to the hazard of rockfalls. The task of assessing roadside rockmasses for potential hazards typically involves an on-site visual investigation of the rockmass by an engineer or geologist. At that time, numerous parameters associated with discontinuity orientations and spacing, block size (volume) and shape distributions, slope geometry, and ditch profile are either measured or estimated. Measurements are typically tallied according to a formal hazard rating system, and a hazard level is determined for the site. This methodology often involves direct exposure of the evaluating engineer to the hazard and can also create a potentially non-unique record of the assessed slope based on the skill, knowledge and background of the evaluating engineer. Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)–based technologies have the capability to produce spatially accurate, high-resolution digital models of physical objects, known as point clouds. Mobile terrestrial LiDAR equipment can collect, at traffic speed, roadside data along highways and rail lines, scanning continual distances of hundreds of kilometres per day. Through the use of mobile terrestrial LiDAR, in conjunction with airborne and static systems for problem areas, rockfall hazard analysis workflows can be modified and optimized to produce minimally biased, repeatable results. Traditional rockfall hazard analysis inputs include two distinct, but related sets of variables related to geological or geometric control. Geologically controlled inputs to hazard rating systems include kinematic stability (joint identification/orientation) and rock block shape and size distributions. Geometrically controlled inputs include outcrop shape and size, road, ditch and outcrop profile, road curvature and vehicle line of sight. Inputs from both categories can be extracted or calculated from LiDAR data, although there are some limitations and special sampling and processing considerations related to structural character of the rockmass, as detailed in this paper.     

三峡水库某库段岩体裂隙网络模拟研究

为合理评价三峡水库某库岸岩体结构特征及工程整治提供依据,对区内岩体进行了裂隙调查及网络模拟研究。研究基于Monte-Carlo模拟方法,在技术上进行了探讨和一定改进。如采用了聚类分析法确定裂隙优势产状、用直接法产生随机数、广义RQD t及裂隙线连通率的计算等。根据野外调查及计算机模拟研究,研究区发育有3组优势裂隙、平均迹长1.45 m左右。间距一般服从对数正态或负指数分布,而走向和迹长基本上不服从常规分布。裂隙线密度在3－6条/m、t = 0.1 m时RQD t值在90 %左右、t = 0.7 m时RQD t值为10 %－20 %、RQD t值变化可能影响库岸岩体在不同方向的稳定性。     

高陡边坡岩体结构信息无人机识别与离散元数值模拟

岩体结构特征的准确表征对边坡稳定性评价具有重要影响。由于高陡边坡岩体结构的人工编录工作开展困难,结构几何信息往往获取不全面,导致边坡数值模型构建往往不理想。以江西德兴银山铜矿露天边坡为工程背景,采用无人机与运动恢复结构法(SfM)获取边坡岩体点云模型。基于点云数据建立结构面识别和解译算法,自动获取结构面产状、迹长、间距等几何信息。对比人工测量结果,无人机测量与结构面识别能够获取更符合实际的坡面与岩体结构模型。采用非均匀有理B样条(NURBS)曲面重构和“Rhino-Griddle-3DEC”联合建模方法,结合岩体结构统计模型构建离散裂隙网络DFN能够快速建立三维离散元数值模型,从而获得更好的数值模拟计算结果,满足岩质高边坡稳定性评价的需要。     

Influence of discontinuities and clay minerals in their filling materials on the instability of rock slopes

To assess the influence of discontinuities and clay minerals in their filling materials on the instability of rock slopes, seven rock slopes along the margin of Ganjnameh–Shahrestaneh Road, Hamedan Province, Western Iran were selected, and the physical and mechanical properties of their rocks and discontinuities were determined. By statistical studies of the discontinuities, rock slope stability analysis has been performed using kinematic and limit equilibrium methods so that safety factors for the rock slopes can be calculated. Also, sampling of filling materials and X-ray diffraction tests have been done to identify the clay minerals in the filling materials. The lithologies of the studied rock slopes are granite, diorite and hornfels. The presence of discontinuities and weakness planes with different orientations and clay minerals in filling materials of discontinuities are effective factors that cause plane, wedge and toppling failures in the rock slopes. Clay minerals as filling materials of discontinuities in the studied rock slope facilitate their instability by two different methods. First, absorption of water by infilling clay minerals causes the friction angle of discontinuity surfaces that leads to plane and wedge failures to be reduced. Second, water absorption causes the swelling of clay infilling minerals that leads to toppling failure.     

The Planar Shape of Rock Joints

Knowing the planar shape of discontinuities is important when characterizing discontinuities in a rock mass. However, the real discontinuity shape is rarely known, since the rock mass is usually inaccessible in three dimensions. Information on discontinuity shape is limited and often open to more than one interpretation. This paper discusses the planar shape of rock joints, the most common discontinuities in rock. First, a brief literature review about the shape of joints is presented, including some information on joint-surface morphology, inferences from observed trace lengths on different sampling planes, information based on experimental studies, and joint shapes assumed by different researchers. This review shows that joints not affected by adjacent geological structures such as bedding boundaries or pre-existing fractures tend to be elliptical (or approximately circular but rarely). Joints affected by or intersecting such geological structures tend to be rectangular. Then, using the general stereological relationship between trace length distributions and joint size distributions developed by Zhang et al. (Geotechnique 52(6):419–433, 2002) for elliptical joints, the effect of sampling plane orientation on trace lengths is investigated. This study explains why the average trace lengths of non-equidimensional (elliptical or similar polygonal) joints on two sampling planes can be about equal and thus the conclusion that rock joints are equidimensional (circular) drawn from the fact that the average trace lengths on two sampling planes are approximately equal can be wrong. Finally, methods for characterizing the shape and size of joints (elliptical or rectangular) from trace length data are recommended, and the appropriateness of using elliptical joint shapes to represent polygonal, especially rectangular, joints is discussed.     

Geological controls on rock mass classification of coal from Huntly East Mine, New Zealand

Rock Mass Rating (RMR) measurements from 65 sites within Huntly East underground coal mine are presented. All measurements are in coal, for which the dominant discontinuities are vertical cleat. Basic RMR values using two discontinuity spacings are presented: overall RMR based on the average spacing of all individual discontinuities; and cleat zone RMR based on the average spacing between zones of cleat. Cleat orientations are highly variable, but on average approximately parallel horizontal stress axes (face cleat follows maximum horizontal stress axis, butt cleat follows minimum horizontal stress axis).Contours of RMR variations throughout the mine are used to compare rock mass conditions with geological structure. It is apparent that: (1) RMR is least within downthrown fault blocks, and particularly immediately on the downthrown sides of faults, and greatest in upthrown fault blocks; and (2) RMR contours parallel horizontal stress axes within fault-bounded blocks, and bend to parallel faults at block boundaries. From similar contours for parameters contributing to RMR, the Rock Quality Designation (RQD), groundwater rating, and discontinuity condition rating create most of the observed variations in RMR. RQD is determined from the measured discontinuity frequency and hence is a measure of the degree of fracturing of the rock mass. This is interpreted as influencing the groundwater and condition parameters directly by allowing greater water ingress. Discontinuity frequency is greatest (least spacing) in the immediate vicinity of faults, and in downthrown fault blocks, generating low RMR values. Within fault blocks RQD varies little, so RMR contours align with cleat orientations.As RMR contours, faults, stress field and cleat orientation are clearly interrelated, there is unequivocally a connection between RMR and structural geology; this allows some predictive capacity in terms of ground conditions. If geological features can be accurately defined through either drilling programs or seismic surveys, then ground conditions may be predicted before panels are driven.     

基于岩体结构特征的高速远程滑坡致灾范围评价

高速远程滑坡的演化机制与运动过程受控于岩体结构.以重庆市武隆县鸡尾山滑坡为例,采用地面激光扫描技术,获取岩体结构面几何信息,基于离散元数值模拟方法,考虑岩体结构特征,分析高速远程滑坡演化过程及其致灾范围.研究结果表明:(1) 岩体结构特征由岩体内部发育的结构面所决定,针对点云数据开展空间几何计算与聚类分析,可以快速精细地获取岩体结构面产状信息,从而进行岩体结构面识别与组别划分;(2) 将岩体结构特征评价结果导入离散元模型中,能够实现高速远程滑坡致灾范围的快速评价目的,并且取得了与实际滑动距离较为吻合的结果.