Soil moisture retrieval from satellite images and its application to heavy rainfall simulation in eastern China

The soil water index (SWI) from satellite remote sensing and the observational soil moisture from agricultural meteorological stations in eastern China are used to retrieve soil moisture. The analysis of correlation coefficient (CORR), root-mean-square-error (RMSE) and bias (BIAS) shows that the retrieved soil moisture is convincible and close to the observation. The method can overcome the difficulties in soil moisture observation on a large scale and the retrieved soil moisture may reflect the distribution of the real soil moisture objectively. The retrieved soil moisture is used as an initial scheme to replace initial conditions of soil moisture (NCEP) in the model MM5V3 to simulate the heavy rainfall in 1998. Three heavy rainfall processes during 13–14 June, 18–22 June, and 21–26 July 1998 in the Yangtze River valley are analyzed. The first two processes show that the intensity and location of simulated precipitation from SWI are better than those from NCEP and closer to the observed values. The simulated heavy rainfall for 21–26 July shows that the update of soil moisture initial conditions can improve the model’s performance. The relationship between soil moisture and rainfall may explain that the stronger rainfall intensity for SWI in the Yangtze River valley is the result of the greater simulated soil moisture from SWI prior to the heavy rainfall date than that from NCEP, and leads to the decline of temperature in the corresponding area in the heavy rainfall days. Detailed analysis of the heavy rainfall on 13–14 June shows that both land-atmosphere interactions and atmospheric circulation were responsible for the heavy rainfall, and it shows how the SWI simulation improves the simulation. The development of mesoscale systems plays an important role in the simulation regarding the change of initial soil moisture for SWI.     

中国东部夏季持续强降水发生的主要环流模态和水汽输送研究

利用1957~2011年我国502个测站逐日降水资料,定义区域平均降水量连续5 d超过1个标准差为1次区域性持续强降水,分析了我国东部(105°E以东)长江流域、华北和东北地区夏季(6~8月)的强降水,共得到74个个例,并探讨了造成长江流域和华北地区持续性强降水的主要环流与水汽输送模态。结果表明,中高纬出现阻塞形势是造成我国东部夏季区域性持续强降水的主要环流型,占比86%。其中影响长江流域强降水的主要阻塞形势为中阻型(贝加尔湖为高压脊)和双阻型(乌拉尔山和鄂霍次克海同时出现高压脊);影响华北地区强降水的主要阻塞形势为中阻型。同时,必须建立一条自热带海洋至降雨区的水汽通道,长江流域强降水的水汽通道为印度洋—孟加拉湾—南海;对于华北地区,除此水汽通道外,西北太平洋水汽输送也是一个重要水汽来源。长江流域强降水的异常水汽输送在菲律宾北部出现反气旋中心,导致从南海有异常水汽输送并在长江流域辐合,这一反气旋中心对应500 h Pa上西太平洋副热带高压的加强;华北地区强降水的异常水汽输送在渤海—朝鲜半岛出现反气旋中心,异常水汽来自南海和西北太平洋。渤海—朝鲜半岛在500 h Pa出现正高度异常对维持华北地区持续降水有重要作用。深厚的上升运动或低层辐合高层辐散是华北与长江流域持续强降水发生的共同特点。中阻型和双阻型的长江流域强降水在水汽输送上没有明显差异,而是动力上升条件的分布差异决定了雨带主要位置的不同。     

AREM及其对2003年汛期降水的模拟

文中回顾了一个能考虑陡峭复杂地形的有限区域 η坐标数值预报模式 (RegionalEta coordinateModel,简称REM )十几年来的发展和应用过程 ,列举了该模式系统在气象、水文、环境和军事保障等科研和业务单位的主要应用。同时介绍了在此基础上发展升级的暴雨数值预报模式 (AdvancedREM ,简称AREM )。由于 (A)REM抓住了中国区域的地形和天气特点 ,已成为模拟和预报中国天气和环境灾害的重要工具 ,在环境治理、抗洪抢险、防灾减灾以及军事气象保障中发挥了重要作用。通过分析新版本AREM对 2 0 0 3年夏季中国东部区域降水过程的模拟和预报结果 ,反映了AREM对中国东部区域降水的模拟和预报能力 ,再现了 2 0 0 3年夏季中国东部主要降水过程的雨量分布和演变特征。ARM对主要降水区域平均降水量的逐日预报与观测基本一致。它不仅对发生在淮河流域的较大范围的降水预报如此 ,而且对有些受地形强迫影响的局部强降水中心 ,预报结果也与观测基本一致。     

CWRF模式对长江流域极端降水气候事件的模拟能力评估

基于1980—2016年长江流域站点观测降水,评估了CWRF区域气候模式对长江流域面雨量和极端降水气候事件的模拟能力.结果表明:CWRF模式能较好地再现1980—2016年长江流域及不同分区降水空间分布及月/季面雨量年际变率,且在冬、春季表现较好,夏、秋季次之.CWRF模式对长江流域面雨量存在系统性高估,对面雨量的模拟...     

The Effects of Model Resolution on the Simulation of Regional Climate Extreme Events

The fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University/NCAR Mesoscale Model Version 3 (MM5V3) was used to simulate extreme heavy rainfall events over the Yangtze River Basin in June 1999. The effects of model's horizontal and vertical resolution on the extreme climate events were investigated in detail. In principle, the model was able to characterize the spatial distribution of monthly heavy precipitation. The results indicated that the increase in horizontal resolution could reduce the bias of the modeled heavy rain and reasonably simulate the change of daily precipitation during the study period. A finer vertical resolution led to obviously improve rainfall simulations with smaller biases, and hence, better resolve heavy rainfall events. The increase in both horizontal and vertical resolution could produce better predictions of heavy rainfall events. Not only the rainfall simulation altered in the cases of different horizontal and vertical grid spacing, but also other meteorological fields demonstrated diverse variations in terms of resolution change in the model. An evident improvement in the simulated sea level pressure resulted from the increase of horizontal resolution, but the simulation was insensitive to vertical grid spacing. The increase in vertical resolution could enhance the simulation of surface temperature as well as atmospheric circulation at low levels, while the simulation of circulation at middle and upper levels were found to be much less dependent on changing resolution. In addition, cumulus parameterization schemes showed high sensitivity to horizontal resolution. Different convective schemes exhibited large discrepancies in rainfall simulations with regards to changing resolution. The percentage of convective precipitation in the Grell scheme increased with increasing horizontal resolution. In contrast, the Kain-Fritsch scheme caused a reduced ratio of convective precipitation to total rainfall accumulations corresponding to increasing horizontal resolution.     

一次江淮切变线暴雨过程的数值模拟与诊断分析

采用非静力中尺度模式WRFV3.3对2010年7月12-13日一次江淮切变线暴雨过程进行数值模拟,分析了暴雨形成的大尺度环流条件、中尺度气旋演变,并对涡旋与变形场的相互作用指数VDI与降水之间的关系进行了探讨。结果表明：本次暴雨过程为典型的切变线降水过程,是在高层200 hPa强大的南亚高压稳定少动,中层500hPa短波槽生成东移、西太平洋副热带高压维持的背景下,由低层700 hPa和850 hPa切变线上中尺度低涡以及地面梅雨锋扰动的共同作用造成的。WRFV3.3较好地模拟了本次暴雨过程的雨带和暴雨中心。中尺度气旋发生于长江中下游呈东北-西南走向的切变线上,暴雨发生于700 hPa切变线南侧、低空急流轴的左侧,急流轴上的大风速中心与1 h雨强有较好的对应关系。中尺度涡旋与大风速中心之间存在着明显的相关性,风速增强,涡旋增强。VDI指数对降水中心和强度有较好的指示性,有助于在实际预报业务中对降水中心和强度做出正确判断。     

高空西风急流东西向形态变化对梅雨期降水空间分布的影响

利用40年的NCEP/NCAR再分析候平均资料和同期长江中下游地区逐日降水资料,使用合成方法分析了梅雨期东亚副热带高空西风急流的东西位置和形态变化特征,探讨了高空西风急流对梅雨期降水空间分布的影响.分析结果表明,梅雨期东亚大陆上空西风急流强度减弱且持续维持、西太平洋上空西风急流核分裂减弱直至出梅后消失,这是梅雨期200 hPa东亚高空西风急流东西向位置变化的主要特征.梅雨期,200 hPa副热带西风急流中心呈现东西向位置变化和海陆分布形态差异,西风急流中心东西向位置变化对梅雨起讫有着较好的指示意义.梅雨期东亚副热带高空西风急流东西形态分布差异不仅影响到长江中下游地区降水空间集中区的位置而且还影响到降水中心强度.进一步分析表明,当东亚西风急流主体位于西太平洋上空时,在长江下游地区形成高低空急流耦合的环流形势,强烈的辐合上升运动加上充足的水汽条件供应,有利于在长江下游形成集中的强降水区域.当高空西风急流位于东亚大陆上空时,在长江中下游地区高低空急流无耦合形势存在,长江中下游地区也没有强的集中降水区域.因此,东亚副热带高空西风急流东西向形态变化对长江中下游地区的高低空环流结构、地面集中降水区域的空间分布具有重要的影响.     

1998年7月河套气旋强烈发展时的暴雨过程分析

采用位涡理论对1998年7月4—7日的一次河套气旋强烈发展中的暴雨过程进行分析。结果表明:此次夏季河套气旋的强烈发展是在高层正位涡平流和低层暖平流的共同作用下产生的。高空双急流结构产生的强烈辐散加强了低层辐合，有利于气旋的加强。强降水出现在河套气旋强烈发展过程中，是由高层冷空气与季风涌带来的西南暖湿气流辐合而引起的大尺度降水过程。在这次气旋强烈发展过程中，对流层低层到中上层均出现强的上升气流，使得南方深厚的暖湿空气不断随西南风流入暴雨区上空。暴雨发生时，华北地区处于地面Ω型的θ_se高能舌之中，其上空500 hPa存在一个由大尺度动力强迫形成的东北—西南向的非地转湿 Q 矢量辐合带，对流云带与 Q 矢量辐合中心有非常好的对应关系。     

DIAGNOSTIC INVESTIGATION OF SIMULATION BIAS WITH THE GRAPES-MESO MODEL FOR A TORRENTIAL RAIN CASE

In this paper, the numerical simulation bias of the non-hydrostatic version GRAPES-Meso (Mesoscale of the Global and Regional Assimilation and Prediction System) at the resolution of 0.18o for a torrential rain case, which happened in May 31st to June 1st 2005 over Hunan province, are diagnosed and investigated by using the radiosondes, intensive surface observation, and the operational global analysis data, and the sensitivity experimental results as well. It is shown in the result that the GRAPES-Meso could reproduce quite well the main features of large-cale circulation and the distribution of the accumulated 24h precipitation and the key locations of the torrential rainfall are captured reasonably well by the model. However, bias exist in the simulation of the mesoscale features of the torrential rain and details of the relevant systems, for example, the simulated rainfall that is too earlier in model integration and remarkable underprediction of the peak value of rainfall rates over the heaviest rainfall region, the weakness of the upper jet simulation and the overprediction of the south-west wind in the lower troposphere etc. The investigation reveals that the sources of the simulation bias are different. The erroneous model rainfall in the earlier integration stage over the heaviest rainfall region is induced by the model initial condition bias of the wind field at about 925hPa over the torrential rainfall region, where the bias grow rapidly and spread upward to about 600hPa level within the few hours into the integration and result in abnormal convergence of the wind and moisture, and thus the unreal rainfall over that region. The large bias on the simulated rainfall intensity over the heaviest rainfall region might be imputed to the following combined factors of (1) the simulation bias on the strength and detailed structures of the upper-level jet core which bring about significant underpredictions of the dynamic conditions (including upper-level divergence and the upward motion) for heavy rainfall due to unfavorable mesoscale vertical coupling between the strong upper-level divergence and lower-level convergence; and (2) the inefficient coupling of the cumulous parameterization scheme and the explicit moisture in the integration, which causes the failure of the explicit moisture scheme in generating grid-scale rainfall in a certain extent through inadequate convective adjustment and feedback to the grid-scale. In addition, the interaction of the combined two factors could form a negative feedback to the rainfall intensity simulation, and eventually lead to the obvious underprediction of the rainfall rate.     

陆面特征量初始扰动的敏感性及集合预报试验

文章利用中尺度模式Weather Research and Forecasting Model(WRF)3.2.1版本及National Centers for Environmental Prediction(NCEP)分析资料,研究了陆面变量(土壤湿度、土壤温度)和陆面参数(植被覆盖率)初始场随机扰动对长江中下游暴雨预报的影响并进行了集合预报试验。试验结果表明,短期暴雨过程对陆面变量(参数)扰动是敏感的;陆面变量(参数)初始场扰动影响降水的时间尺度小于10 h甚至可以小于6 h。从影响机理上来看,陆面变量(参数)扰动首先改变地表的潜热通量和感热通量,而地表通量的改变会通过陆气相互作用对局地大气的温、压、湿、风产生较大影响,从而对暴雨的强度和落区产生较大影响。集合预报结果表明,利用陆面变量(参数)扰动制作集合预报,预报的集合平均结果要好于控制预报的结果,且比集合成员稳定可靠,降水概率预报可以提供一些有用的信息,对预报强降水有一定的指示意义。在初值集合预报中,以这些参数或变量的扰动来引进集合成员是十分有意义的。     

青藏高原东北部强降水天气过程的气候特征分析

根据青藏高原东北部地区降水特点,定义青藏高原强降水概念,利用该区域内各测站自建站以来的气象资料,分析青藏高原强降水的时空分布特征和相对强度。结果表明:青藏高原东北部地区强降水的分布明显受到地形影响,年降水量和强降水次数自东向西呈阶梯性递减趋势,分别在青藏高原东北部的外流河谷地区和东南部四川北部地区存在大值中心;外流河谷地区两侧山脉的年降雨量较大,年均强降水日数较多,河源处相对较小,具有河谷地形的特点;青藏高原强降水的时段集中,雨强大,局地性强,且具有夜发性的特点;强降水日数和站数具有明显的年代际变化特征,近10年来出现区域性强降水的次数增加;青藏高原东北部外流河谷地区强降水的相对强度较大,同长江以南地区暴雨相对强度差不多。     

1996年7月洞庭湖流域持续性暴雨过程分析

1996年7月洞庭湖流域发生了严重的洪涝灾害。利用观测资料进行诊断分析表明:(1)这次大洪水是由梅雨锋西端高空槽前的持续性大面积暴雨引起；(2)引起持续性暴雨的直接原因是MCS形成后停滞少动，并在同一地区连续多次生消；(3)由于高空槽长时间维持在长江中游地区，对流层低层的暖平流等大尺度强迫使暴雨区能较长时间维持上升运动，同时低层持续强的水汽辐合和位势不稳定能量的输送为暴雨持续地发生提供了充足的水汽和能量。     

2013年和2017年7月昆明大暴雨过程对比分析

利用NCEP/NCAR1°×1°再分析资料和多种加密观测资料,对2013年7月18～19日和2017年7月19～20日发生在昆明城区局地性大暴雨进行诊断分析。结果表明:这两次昆明局地性强降水过程既有相同点,也有不同点。相同点有,两次过程的主要大尺度影响系统是青藏高压与西太平洋副热带高压之间的辐合区以及低层切变线。来自南海和孟加拉湾洋面的水汽在辐合区交汇,产生强烈的水汽辐合,并在昆明地区附近形成深厚的水汽辐合层,是这两次局地大暴雨天气的主要水汽特征。两高辐合区对暖湿不稳定气流辐合抬升作用,触发昆明地区产生中β尺度对流系统(M_βCS)云团,强降水出现在TBB等值线梯度比较大的区域。M_βCS云团不断生消,也引发了两次过程中短时强降水的发生。不同点有,2013年过程由于登陆台风影响,使得水汽辐合更持久,加之上升运动也较强,因此过程降水持续时间也较长,达17小时。在强降雨开始前,昆明地区上空存在明显的对流不稳定能量的积聚过程。2017年过程降水对流性更强,最大雨强70mm·h-1以上。      

长江流域夏季不同强度降水日数的时空变化特征

利用长江流域56个站点1957—2009年夏季逐日降水资料、NCEP/NCAR再分析资料以及Hadley海表温度资料,分析了长江流域夏季不同强度降水日数的时空变化及其相关的海气异常型。结果表明:(1)近53 a来,长江流域夏季大到暴雨日数占总降水日数的比率呈明显增加趋势,而中小雨日数占总降水日数的比率呈明显减少趋势。(2)长江流域夏季不同强度降水日数的变化及其相应的海气异常型表现为明显不同的特征。当前期春季海温距平场表现为典型的东部型El Nino分布形态,500 h Pa位势高度场呈现出"+-+"的经向PJ波列,西北太平洋副热带高压偏强,位置偏南偏西,中高纬地区乌拉尔山和鄂霍次克海地区出现双阻塞形势,南半球澳大利亚高压异常偏强,越赤道气流偏强,在30°N附近200 h Pa纬向西风急流异常偏强,850 h Pa风场在东亚上空经向方向上呈现出明显的反气旋—气旋—反气旋系统相间分布的特征时,有利于长江流域夏季大到暴雨降水日数偏多。     

长江中游和下游夏季降水季节内振荡的差异

利用1979~2013年中国站点逐日降水资料和NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,对长江中下游夏季降水的季节内振荡最显著周期进行了分析研究。结果表明长江中游最显著周期为10~30天,长江下游最显著周期为30~60天。为了揭示这种差异产生的物理原因,进一步利用位相合成的方法对这两个区域不同周期的季节内振荡降水、高低空风场和高度场以及垂直结构和水汽等循环过程的演变特征进行分析。在200 hPa环流场上,长江中游的降水主要受到高纬度自西向东传播的波列影响,而长江下游的降水与鄂霍次克海的高度场的变化相关。在风场的垂直涡度和散度的位相结构演变过程中,10~30天的垂直涡度和散度有自北向南的移动,30~60天的垂直涡度和散度在长江以南地区有自南向北的传播。水汽输送的位相发展过程表明,长江中游的水汽分别来自于南海的向北输送和长江以北地区向南的水汽输送;长江下游地区的水汽则主要来自于热带东印度洋经孟加拉湾的向东输送并在南海的北向输送,以及西太平洋水汽向西输送到南海再向长江下游的输送。从高层大尺度环流场和整层积分的水汽通量输送上解释了长江中游10~30天降水的自北向南移动,和长江下游30~60天降水自南向北传播的原因。     

一次西南低涡东移引发长江中下游暴雨的诊断研究

利用常规观测资料和NECP再分析资料,对2013年6月6—7日西南低涡东移加强发展造成长江中下游大暴雨过程进行了诊断分析,重点探讨了西南低涡东移和发展维持的物理机制以及最强降水的变化特征。结果表明,沿着700 hPa高空切变线东移的西南低涡是造成此次长江中下游地区暴雨的直接影响系统,西南低涡沿着700 hPa切变线东移发展,深厚阶段正涡度柱伸展到400 hPa高度,自下而上呈近垂直结构。西南低涡附近低层辐合与高层辐散的大尺度环境条件、西南低涡与西南低空急流耦合发展动力结构、低空暖平流和高空槽前正涡度平流输送等条件是导致西南低涡东移到长江中下游后加强发展的主要因子。与西南低涡相伴随的强降雨区主要位于低涡南部3个纬距以内,该处的西南季风和副高西南侧东南气流两支水汽输送的汇合为暴雨发生提供了充沛的水汽和对流不稳定能量,而对流层中低层携带的冷空气侵入低层低涡的后部,不仅加强了低涡的斜压性,也促进了上冷下暖不稳定层结的产生和发展,为强降水的发生提供了不稳定对流触发条件。     

A Simulation Study of a Heavy Rainfall Process over the Yangtze River Valley Using the Two-Way Nesting Approach

In this study,the major features of a heavy rainfall event in the Yangtze River region on 3-7 June 2011 and its event-related large-scale circulation and predictability were studied.Both observational analysis and model simulation were used,the latter being based on the Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF) model forced by NCEP Global Forecast System(GFS) datasets.It was found that,during 3-5 June,the western Pacific subtropical high apparently extended to the west and was much stronger,and the Indian summer monsoon trough was slightly weaker than in normal years.The east-west oriented shear line over the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River was favorable for the transportation and convergence of water vapor,and the precipitation band was located slightly to the south of the shear line.During 6-7 June,the western Pacific subtropical high retreated eastward,while the trough over the Okhotsk Sea deepened.The low vortex in Northeast China intensified,bringing much more cold air to the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River,and the shear line over this area moved slightly southward.The convection band moved southward and became weaker,so the rainfall during 6-7 June weakened and was located slightly to the south of the previous precipitation band.Many of the observed features,including background circulation and the distribution and amount of precipitation,were reproduced reasonably by the WRF,suggesting a feasibility of this model for forecasting extreme weather events in the Yangtze River region.     

单双参云微物理方案对强降水过程中云宏微观特征模拟的对比分析

将WRF3.9模式的16种云微物理方案分为单参、双参两组,分别对2016年6月30日-7月4日江淮流域的一次强降水过程进行模拟.首先利用逐小时观测降水对各组模拟降水进行评估,在此基础上利用FY-2G和CALIPSO云产品数据分别评估不同方案对降水过程中总云量、云垂直结构云水含量等宏微观特征的模拟性能.结果 表明:选用不...     

Analysis of Simulated Heavy Rain over the Yangtze River Valley During 11-30 June 1998 Using RIEMS

RIEMS‘ ability to simulate extreme monsoon rainfall is examined using the 18-month (April 1997 September 1998) integrated results. Model-simulated heavy precipitation over the Yangtze River valley during 11-30 June 1998 is compared with the observation, and the relationships between this heavy rainfall process and the large-scale circulations, such as the westerly jet, low-level jet, and water vapor transport,are analyzed to further understand the mechanisms for simulating heavy monsoon rainfall. The analysis results show that (1) RIEMS can reproduce the pattern of heavy precipitation over the Yangtze River valley during 11-30 June 1998, but it is shifted northwestwards. (2) The simulated West Pacific Subtropical High (WPSH) that controls the East Asia Monsoon evolution is stronger than the observation and is extended westwards, which possibly leads to the north westward shift of the heavy rain belt. (3) The Westerly jet at 200 hPa and the Low-level jet at 850 hPa, both of which are related to the heavy monsoon rainfall,are reasonably reproduced by RIEMS during 11-30 June 1998~ although the intensities of the simulated Westerly/Low-level jets are strong and the location of the Westerly jet leans to the southeast,which may be the causes of RIEMS producing too much heavy rainfall in the north of the Yangtze River valley.     

The Long-term Variation of Extreme Heavy Precipitation and Its Link to Urbanization Effects in Shanghai during 1916–2014

Using the hourly precipitation records of meteorological stations in Shanghai, covering a period of almost a century(1916–2014), the long-term variation of extreme heavy precipitation in Shanghai on multiple spatial and temporal scales is analyzed, and the effects of urbanization on hourly rainstorms studied. Results show that:(1) Over the last century, extreme hourly precipitation events enhanced significantly. During the recent urbanization period from 1981 to 2014, the frequency of heavy precipitation increased significantly, with a distinct localized and abrupt characteristic.(2) The spatial distribution of long-term trends for the occurrence frequency and total precipitation intensity of hourly heavy precipitation in Shanghai shows a distinct urban rain-island feature; namely, heavy precipitation was increasingly focused in urban and suburban areas.Attribution analysis shows that urbanization in Shanghai contributed greatly to the increase in both frequency and intensity of heavy rainfall events in the city, thus leading to an increasing total precipitation amount of heavy rainfall events. In addition,the diurnal variation of rainfall intensity also shows distinctive urban–rural differences, especially during late afternoon and early nighttime in the city area.(3) Regional warming, with subsequent enhancement of water vapor content, convergence of moisture flux and atmospheric instability, provided favorable physical backgrounds for the formation of extreme precipitation.This accounts for the consistent increase in hourly heavy precipitation over the whole Shanghai area during recent times.