The Storfjorden polynya: ERS-2 SAR observations and overview

Persistent polynyas have been observed over several winters in Storfjorden, situated between Spitsbergen and Barentsøya/Edgeøya in the south of the Svalbard archipelago. Polynyas are in general active regions with respect to ocean-atmosphere heat exchange, presenting strong convection phenomena and as such being involved in important water mass formation and having an impact on the marine ecosystem. Hydrographic observations have revealed very dense (cold and saline) brine-enriched bottom waters leaving the continental shelf as gravity driven plumes into the deep sea west of Spitsbergen. Satellite observations, using ERS-2 SAR imagery, reveal the evolution of the Storfjorden polynya during winter 1997/98. After forming a complete ice cover until mid-January, Storfjorden responds dynamically to northerly winds by opening a large latent heat polynya. It occupies at its largest extent a region of up to 6000 km² of open water, thin ice and brash ice. Comparable in size to other large Arctic polynyas, the Storfjorden polynya might have the same or even greater importance in the thermohaline circulation and bottom water mass formation. Ice production is estimated at 30 km³ in Storfjorden, rejecting around 700 Mt (Megatons) of salt that can raise the salinity in Storfjorden by 0.9-1.0 PSU. First studies and the winter 1997/98 evolution of this polynya are presented in this paper.     

楚科奇海阿拉斯加沿岸冰间湖的变化及其影响因素分析

利用2003—2011年AMSR-E(Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-Earth Observing System)日平均海冰密集度数据,对楚科奇海阿拉斯加沿岸冰间湖进行了分析。针对冰间湖的特点,在阈值法的基础上,通过统计冰间湖出现的频率,限定冰间湖的最大范围,区分各个冰间湖。通过计算阿拉斯加沿岸冰间湖的面积,结合NCEP-DOE(National Centers for Environmental Prediction-Department of Energy)再分析风场数据和白令海峡潜标观测的温盐和海流数据,初步探讨冰间湖发生和发展的规律。为了排除海冰外缘区对判断冰间湖的影响,研究仅限于白令海峡完全冰封的1—4月,可得到以下结论:阿拉斯加西北沿岸海域每年冬季都会出现5个冰间湖,多数时间为紧靠大陆边缘的沿岸冰间湖,巴罗角附近海岸在3月和4月会出现位于沿岸固定冰之外的裂缝冰间湖。冰间湖面积每天都发生变化,表现出天气尺度的变化特征,经历长达数日的发展和消失的过程,与风场的转换有密切关系。离岸风有利于沿岸冰间湖的扩展,但是该海域1—4月的盛行风为东北风和北风,对于多数冰间湖而言为沿岸风,不利于冰间湖的形成,因而冰间湖有时消失长达数十日。在偏北风的影响下,太平洋入流对北部冰间湖几无作用,而对南部冰间湖的空间分布有着重要影响。     

利用海冰密集度数据分析北极冰间湖变化

冰间湖内存在强烈的海-气相互作用和结冰析盐过程,在极区以及全球气候系统中起着重要作用。本文基于数字图像处理技术,从AMSR-E高分辨卫星遥感海冰密集度数据中提取了长时间序列的冰间湖变化信息,研究北极冰间湖内的净水面积、净水表面的净热通量(向上为正)、产冰量和产盐量的季节和年际变化,比较不同冰间湖区域之间的差异。研究结果表明:总净水面积分别在结冰初期和末期存在极大值,而由于总净水面积季节变化幅度不是很大,总产冰量和产盐量的季节变化主要受净热通量影响,在1月份存在极大值;在不同冰间湖区域内净水面积的季节变化中,进入结冰期越早的冰间湖内净水面积越快达到首次极大值;净热通量的年际变化趋势总体上是减小的,总净水面积是增加大的,其中靠近太平洋和大西洋入流口的冰间湖内净热通量减小的速率要比其他区域快,靠近亚欧大陆的冰间湖内净水面积增长速率要比其他区域大;总产冰量的年际变化同总净水面积基本一致,也是呈增加趋势。最后通过研究冰间湖的年际变化信息同海冰范围变化的相关性,发现如果连续多年冰间湖内年平均净热通量为负的异常,那么海冰范围将出现一次极小值。     

南极海冰、冰穴和冰川冰及其对水团形成和变性的作用

本文利用前人的成果及笔者1992/1993年的南极海冰观测和收集的资料以及水文观测资料数据阐述了南极海冰的特性,特别是南极海冰过程、冰穴以及冰川冰对南极水团(南极表层水、南极底层水、南极陆架水、南极中层水以及南极冰架水)的形成和变性所起的特殊作用。 南极海冰覆盖面积的年际变化,夏季最大年份是最小年份的2倍多,冬季年间变化较小,最大仅为20％;但其季节变化非常大,冬季平均覆盖面积通常是夏季的5倍。南极海冰对大气-海洋间相互作用有重大影响,特别是深海洋区中冬季的结冰和发育造成的垂向对流、夏季的融化是形成南极表层水(含南极冬季水和南极夏季表层水),进而形成南极中层水的主要原因;南极陆架区的的海冰兴衰过程是形成南极陆架水的直接原因,它与变性南极绕极深层水混合并受到冰川冰的进一步冷却作用,成为形成南极底层水的主要水团;南极冰架底部的冷却、融化和冰架以下水体的结冰作用形成的高盐对流过程产生的南极冰架水,亦是形成南极底层水的贡献者。 冰穴是70年代以来卫星观测的重大发现。对其形成和对大气、海洋的影响作用尚不完全清楚,初步的研究成果表明,冰穴中产生的热盐对流对南极水团的形成、变性、大洋深层的翻转以及海洋-大气间的热量传输和气体交换起有非常重要的作用。     

Variability of the ice export through Fram Strait in 1993–98: the winter 1994/95 anomaly

The origin of the large positive anomaly of the Fram Strait sea ice export which occurred in winter 1994/95 is analysed on the basis of a model simulation of the Arctic sea ice cover over the period 1993-98. The overall intra-annual and interannual variability in the model is in good agreement with observational estimates and the 1994/95 anomaly is well reproduced with an amplitude amounting to half of the mean winter value. Model results suggest that, concomitant to anomalous export velocities, larger than usual ice thickness in the strait contributes to the outstanding amplitude of the anomaly. Analysis on the ice thickness evolution in the strait indicates that the thick ice advected in Fram Strait at the end of the fall of 1994 originates in the anomalous cyclonic wind stress which prevailed during the preceding summer. This anomalous wind stress resulted in persistent convergence of the ice flow against the northern coasts of Canada and Greenland and in the formation of a large thickness anomaly north of Greenland. The anomaly then feeds the Fram Strait ice flow during those following winter months when the local wind forcing in the strait favours ice drift from the north-west. Our results suggest that short-term wind stress variations resulting in local thickness changes to the north of Fram Strait can lead to substantial variability of the Fram Strait ice export.     

Formation of turbid ice during autumn freeze-up in the Kara Sea

A one-dimensional (vertical) model is used to estimate the mass of ice-rafted sediment in turbid sea ice on the shallow Kara Sea shelf during autumn freeze-up. Sediment is entrained into the ice through aggregation with frazil ice crystals that are diffused downwards by wind-generated turbulence. Data from local meteorological stations are used to force the model, while water stratification and sediment concentrations from the area are used to initiate the model. Model results indicate a 0.2 m thick layer of slush ice created during 48 h with a mean wind of 6 m/s and an air temperature of −10°C. This ice contains ca. 20 mg/1 of sediment, or in total ca. 2% of the annual sediment discharge by nearby rivers. In shallow areas (<20 m depth) the process is very effective with winds of ca. 12 m/s, and the process can incorporate many years of sediment discharge. In the deeper areas (>20 m depth), the strong salinity stratification implies that winds above 18 m/s are needed for the process to be effective. For the rest of the winter months the same process may lead to additional sediment incorporated in a coastal polynya, but the freeze-up alone has the capacity to incorporate the total summer discharge of sediment into the surface ice. Calculated sediment concentrations in the surface ice cover are in the range 3 mg/1-19 g/1, in good agreement with available field data.     

Simulation of currents, ice melting, and vertical mixing in the Barents Sea using a 3-D baroclinic model

A baroclinic. 3-D model is described. It is adapted to the Barents Sea and includes thermodynamics and atmospheric input. The freezing and melting of ice is allowed for in the model. The main task of the study is to look at the development of the ice cover, the vertical mixing, and the vertical and horizontal density gradients.
Despite simple approximations in the air temperature input, realistic ice-cover is produced in the model area during simulation of a "freezing period" (winter). This intermediate result is briefly discussed and also forms the start of a "melting period" simulation (spring/summer). Atmospheric input data (wind, air pressure, and heat flux) from the spring and summer 1983 is used, and details about vertical mixing, temperature, and salinity are discussed. The simulation results demonstrate the temporal variation of the thermocline depth, the variation of the ice cover, and the horizontal changes of density. The conclusion is that despite often simplified input, the model seems to produce a physical picture characteristic of the Barents Sea.     

An Analysis of Thermal Stress of Climate in Hong Kong

The universal scale of apparent temperature (AT) and clo, a unit measuring the amount of clothing insulation required to maintain comfort, were used to examine the weather stress in Hong Kong. Hourly AT and clo values were computed using hourly air temperature, wind speed, vapour pressure and cloud cover data from 1980 to 1994. Results of both AT and clo reflected highly corresponding changes of thermal stress. It is found that the most stressful time in winter and summer occurred in the early morning and afternoon, and cool weather and tropical ensembles were required to surmount the extreme weather stress respectively. A greater percent of time with severe heat stress than those with extreme cold stress was discovered. These results also indicated that clo is a more informative weather stress index than AT since it provides both the thermal stress and clothing requirements to sustain comfort.     

2003年与1999年楚科奇海海冰的差异及其发生原因

我国在1999年和2003年进行了两次北极考察,这两年海冰的冰情差别很大,分别对应冰情较重和较轻的年份。本文利用卫星遥感资料对1999年和2003年的海冰分布状况及其差异进行了全面的分析,并利用气温和风场资料深入研究形成这种差异的动力学原因。结果表明, 2003年的海冰冰情与1999年相比要轻很多,海冰面积在春季融冰季节和秋季冻结季节显著减小。2003年春季,来自白令海的海水提早半个月进入楚科奇海,导致海冰大范围融化。但是,到了夏季,海冰的面积减少过程停滞下来。而秋季楚科奇海封冻过程比1999年晚半个月。以上这些特征形成了2003年与1999年海冰的显著差异。研究结果表明, 2003年春季和秋季的气温比1999年要明显增高,最大月平均温差接近18°C,显著的高温为海冰融化的加剧和冻结的推迟提供了热量。直接影响海冰分布的是海面风场,两年风场的差异产生了来自白令海的太平洋入流的差异,对春季海冰融化的提前、夏季入流的减弱和秋季冻结过程的推迟起到关键的作用。季节性气象要素的年际差异可以归因于整个北极的AO系统变化, 2003年AO指数是正值, 1999年为负值,成为楚科奇海局地海冰变化的气候背景。     

A coupled multi-category sea ice model and POM for Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea

An overview of the seasonal variation of sea-ice cover in Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea is given.A coupled ice-ocean model,CECOM,has been developed to study the seasonal variation and associated ice-ocean processes.The sea-ice component of the model is a multi-category ice model in which mean concentration and thickness are expressed in terms of a thickness distribution function.Ten categories of ice thickness are specified in the model.Sea ice is coupled dynamically and thermo-dynamically to the Princeton Ocean Model.Selected results from the model including the seasonal variation of sea ice in Baffin Bay,the North Water polynya and ice growth and melt over the Labrador Shelf are presented.     

Decadal‐Scale Changes of the Ödenwinkelkees,Central Austria,Suggest Increasing Control of Topography and Evolution Towards Steady State

Small mountain glaciers have short mass balance response times to climate change and are consequently very important for short‐term contributions to sea level. However, a distinct research and knowledge gap exists between (1) wider regional studies that produce overview patterns and trends in glacier changes, and (2) in situ local scale studies that emphasise spatial heterogeneity and complexity in glacier responses to climate. This study of a small glacier in central Austria presents a spatiotemporally detailed analysis of changes in glacier geometry and changes in glaciological behaviour. It integrates geomorphological surveys, historical maps, aerial photographs, airborne LiDAR data, ground‐based differential global positioning surveys and Ground Penetrating Radar surveys to produce three‐dimensional glacier geometry at 13 time increments spanning from 1850 to 2013. Glacier length, area and volume parameters all generally showed reductions with time. The glacier equilibrium line altitude increased by 90 m between 1850 and 2008. Calculations of the mean bed shear stress rapidly approaching less than 100 kPA, of the volume–area ratio fast approaching 1.458, and comparison of the geometric reconstructions with a 1D theoretical model could together be interpreted to suggest evolution of the glacier geometry towards steady state. If the present linear trend in declining ice volume continues, then the Ödenwinkelkees will disappear by the year 2040, but we conceptualise that non‐linear effects of bed overdeepenings on ice dynamics, of supraglacial debris cover on the surface energy balance, and of local topographically driven controls, namely wind‐redistributed snow deposition, avalanching and solar shading, will become proportionally more important factors in the glacier net balance.     

Dynamics of the last glaciation in eastern Svalbard as inferred from glacier-movement indicators

Glacial striae and other ice movement indicators such as roche moutonées, glacial erratics, till fabric and glaciotectonic deformation have been used to reconstruct the Late Weichselian ice movements in the region of eastern Svalbard and the northern Barents Sea. The ice movement pattern may be divided into three main phases: (1) a maximum phase when ice flowed out of a centre east or southeast of Kong Karls Land. At this time the southern part of Spitsbergen was overrun by glacial ice from the Barents Sea; (2) the phase of deglaciation of the Barents Sea Ice Sheet, when an ice cap was centred between Kong Karls Land and Nordaustlandet. At the same time ice flowed southwards along Storfjorden; and (3) the last phase of the Late Weichselian glaciation in eastern Svalbard is represented by local ice caps on Spitsbergen, Nordaustlandet, Barentsoya and Edgeøya.
The reconstructed ice flow pattern during maximum glaciation is compatible with a centre of uplift in the northern Barents Sea as shown by isobase reconstructions and suggested by isostatic modelling.     

1979—2015 年罗斯海海冰运动速度变化

基于美国冰雪数据中心的月平均海冰运动和海冰密集度数据, 建立了1979—2015 年罗斯海海冰运动 速度时间变化序列, 揭示了海冰运动速度的年际和季节变化特征, 探讨了海冰运动速度和海冰范围之间可 能存在的联系, 最后对影响海冰运动速度变化的因素进行了分析。结果表明, 1979—2015 年罗斯海海冰运动 速度总体呈现加快趋势, 海冰运动速度增加趋势最快的季节为秋季, 其次是冬季、春季和夏季。冬季海冰平 均运动速度最大, 依次是秋季、春季和夏季。海冰运动速度与海冰范围在37 年间均呈现上升趋势, 海冰范 围变化滞后海冰运动速度1—2 个月, 两者呈显著正相关关系, 海冰运动速度的增加导致罗斯海海冰范围不 断扩张, 进而影响南极整体海冰分布。罗斯海海冰运动速度与风速之间存在显著正相关关系, 风场是影响海 冰运动速度的一个直接因素。除此之外, 海冰运动还受到包括气压场、洋流场以及海洋阻力系数等的影响。     

2010年夏季北极冰情变化及大气环流场演变

利用美国冰雪中心(NSIDC)资料分析2010年夏季中国第4次北极科学考察期间北极海冰的冰情变化,并通过NCEP再分析资料对同时期的大气环流演变进行分析,发现6月与8月环流形势为偶极子正异常,加速了海冰的融化,其中2010年6月的海冰覆盖范围达到有历史记录以来的6月最低值;7月为低压控制,减缓了海冰覆盖范围的进一步减少...     

Role of sea ice in air-sea exchange and its relation to sea fog

Synchronous or quasi-synchronous stereoscopic sea-ice-air comprehensive observation was conducted during the First China Arctic Expedition in summer of 1999. Based on these data, the role of sea ice in sea-air exchange was studied. The study shows that the kinds, distribution and thickness of sea ice and their variation significantly influence the air-sea heat exchange. In floating ice area, the heat momentum transferred from ocean to atmosphere is in form of latent heat; latent heat flux is closely related to floating ice concentration; if floating ice is less, the heat flux would be larger. Latent heat flux is about 21 23 6 W·m -2, which is greater than sensible heat flux. On ice field or giant floating ice, heat momentum transferred from atmosphere to sea ice or snow surface is in form of sensible heat. In the floating ice area or polynya, sea-air exchange is the most active, and also the most sensible for climate. Also this area is the most important condition for the creation of Arctic vapor fog. The heat exchange of a large-scale vapor fog process of about 500000 km 2 on Aug. 21 22,1999 was calculated; the heat momentum transferred from ocean to air was about 14 8×10 9 kW. There are various kinds of sea fog, radiation fog, vapor fog and advection fog, forming in the Arctic Ocean in summer. One important cause is the existence of sea ice and its resultant complexity of both underlying surface and sea-air exchange.     

Radiophysical Monitoring of the Lake Baikal Ice Cover

Presented are the results of the winter 2014 radiophysical expedition, within the framework of which the Baikal ice cover was investigated by electromagnetic methods. The primary objectives the expedition were to detect irregularities in the ice cover, such as cracks and thawing steamed holes in the ice, and to determine the ice thickness and structure in the area of the thawing holes by the GPR sounding method. We used in the experiments the OKO-2 ground-penetrating radar (GPR) of the decimeter band and the nanosecond radar with the wavelength of 3 cm. The measurements were made carried out from the Khivus hovercraft and from the UAZ automobile. The ice thickness of Lake Baikal was determined by non-contact electromagnetic measurement methods. Radargrams of reflected signals from the ice cover are presented. Radar patterns of reflected signals from artificial irregularities of the ice cover were obtained by the short-pulse radar method. The concept of radiophysical monitoring is suggested, which provides a means of determining the ice cover parameters of a water body with high spatial resolution. We present an integral approach to investigating the conditions of the ice cover in order to integrate different physicochemical methods for diagnosing the objects studied. A further development of the concept of integrated ice cover research, and the creation of the monitoring network involves solving a number of scientific and engineering tasks that include developing physical models and information and measurement systems as well as the rationale for an integrated monitoring network.     

冰雪覆盖与气候变化

引言冰雪覆盖是地球—大气系统中一个活跃的成员,也是地理环境中的一个重要组成部分。因此,多年来冰雪覆盖就是地理学家及气候学家的研究对象。冰雪覆盖的变化,对气候有很大影响,小至海冰与大陆积雪的季节与年际变化,大到冰河期大陆冰盖的巨大改变,都在不同尺度的气候变化中留下了不可磨灭的痕迹。     

2000-2013年西藏纳木错湖冰变化及其影响因素

湖冰物候事件是气候变化的敏感指示器。本文以西藏纳木错湖为研究对象,基于MODIS多光谱反射率产品数据监测了2000-2013年纳木错湖冰冻融日期,并结合多个气象站点的气象数据和实测湖面温度、湖面辐射亮温分析验证了湖冰变化的原因。纳木错湖冰变化较好地响应了区域气候变暖：开始冻结日期延迟和完全消融日期提前使湖冰存在期显著缩短(2.8 d/a)、湖冰冻结期增长、湖冰消融期缩短,其中消融期变化最为明显,平均每年缩短3.1 d。湖冰冻融日期的变化表明：2000年后纳木错湖冰冻结困难,消融加速,稳定性减弱。纳木错湖冰变化主要受湖面温度、湖面辐射亮温和气温变化的影响,它们可以作为气象因子来解释区域气候变化。     

东西伯利亚海海冰季节变化特征及主要影响因素分析

利用1997-2005年美国国家冰雪中心提供的卫星遥感数据,对东西伯利亚海海冰周年变化特征及其动力和热力学机制进行详细分析,以1999年海冰状况为例讨论了该海域海冰的周年变化。按照海冰变化的区域特征和融化机制差异,将全年的海冰变化过程分为密集冰封期、陆坡开裂期、西部融化期、全面融化期和秋季结冰期。不同年份各个阶段发生的具体日期不尽相同,海冰覆盖面积最小值及其发生时间有所差异,但是,各年海冰变化的5个阶段都清晰可辨。海冰融化时间持续3个月,冻结时间仅为1个半月左右。每年5月份东西伯利亚海陆坡处海冰发生开裂,主要是该时期风场辐散的作用。1999年,除5月份以外的其他月份,东西伯利亚海海表面风场是辐聚风场,不利于海冰融化和开阔水域面积的扩大。东西伯利亚海海冰融化的决定性因素是陆地径流,因迪吉尔卡河、科雷马河、亚纳河和勒拿河四条河流在海冰融化过程中发挥主要作用。海冰覆盖面积最小值出现的时间一般是9月下旬,整个海域的沿岸带海冰全部消失,形成大范围的开阔水。夏季北半球气温的升高和太阳辐射的加热作用,为海冰融化提供持续的热量。     

2011年初冬南极普里兹湾冰间湖区上层水体结构演化研究

利用5头活动于南极普里兹湾的象海豹携带的CTD观测获得的2011年3—6月埃默里冰架前缘冰间湖区域海水温盐剖面数据, 研究了该海域上层水体结构在初冬的演化过程。结果显示, 可将该演化过程分为三个阶段：第一阶段海水温度从层化到均匀, 3月下旬次表层仍维持暖水特征, 随着表层海水冷却作用, 次表层暖水逐渐消失, 上下水体温度趋于均匀并接近冰点, 温度剖面从“逆温型”演变到“均匀型”; 第二阶段海水盐度从层化到上下均匀, 也就是从“均匀型”演变到“渐变型”, 海水结冰析盐过程使上层海水盐度增加, 增强垂直对流混合, 上下层盐度达到均匀; 第三阶段冷却结冰持续, 海水盐度继续增大, 形成盐度随深度减小, 温度随深度增大的“渐变型”结构。根据温盐剖面数据计算三个阶段的海-气之间的热通量分别是－90.93、－82.20和－43.44 Wm^-2。考虑海水盐分的增加主要源于海冰形成, 由此推算三个阶段内平均的海冰形成速率分别是5.4、4.9和2.5 cm d^-1。在南极初冬时期, 随着海水上层低温高盐化演变持续, 海水向大气释放的热通量逐渐减少, 海冰形成速率也呈减少趋势。